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News & EventsJourney of Faith
In the Steps of Saint Francis and Blessed John Paul Patriarch Gregorios III at Assisi 2011 Visite Pastorale de Sa Béatitude pour Vénézuela 10-25 octobre 2011 PASTORAL VISIT OF HIS BEATITUDE GREGORIOS III TO VENEZUELA 10-25 OCTOBER 2011 Bound to live together: religions and cultures in dialogue Sant’Egidio Meeting for Peace – Munich 11-13 September 2011 Visit of H.B. Patriarch Gregorios III to Slovakia 27-30 May 2011 Visit of His Beatitude to Kyiv Ukraine 27-28 March 2011 Patriarch Gregorios III visits Bkerkeh to congratulate Maronite Patriarch Beshara, 16 march 2011 Congress on The Synod for the Middle East and its impact on Arab Countries Umayyad Palace, Damascus 15 December 2010 Speech of His Beatitude Gregorios III, Rome-12 October 2010 Synode pour le Moyen Orient Rome 10-24 Octobre 2010 Revue de la presse française Intervention de Sa Beatitude le Patriarche Gregorios III durant l’Assemblée spéciale du Synode des Evêques pour le Proche Orient Rome 10 – 24 Octobre 2010 Visit of His Beatitude Gregorios III to Essen - Germany September 12th 2010 On Burning Copies of the Koran - Archbishop Cyril S. Bustros, Eparch of Newton Programme of Events in Argentina for Patriarch Gregorios III 25 August - 6 September 2010 Visit of His Beatitude,Patriarch Gregorios III To Brazil 5-17 August 2010 Day for Priests in Rabweh, Lebanon 16 June 2010 In the Context of the Year for Priests Papal visit to Cyprus and appeal for Christians in the Middle East 4-6 June 2010 Pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, Spain From Friday, 20st to Sunday 24th of May 2010 Programme of His Beatitude, Patriarch Gregorios III, Münich, Germany 12-16 May 2010 Visit of Malta and Sicily of His Beatitude Gregorios III 16-21 april 2010 Patriarch Gregorios III in India, 10-15 march 2010 Photos of this journey Souvenir du feu Archimandrite Xavier EID Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs Meeting in Cairo, Egypt from 22 to 25 February 2010 In Memoriam The late Archimandrite Xavier Eid, February 2010, Cairo The visit of His Beatitude Patriarch Gregorios III To Alexandria 8-11 January la visite de Sa Béatitude Gregorios III en Alexandrie H.B. Patriarch Gregorios III’s visit to Egypt la visite de Sa Béatitude Gregorios III en egypte Annuel meeting of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem New Orleans, Louisiana 25-27 september 2009 First Meeting of the Presynodal Council for the Middle East. Rome 21-22 September Year for Priests – 19 June 2009 – 19 June 2010 Faiths and Cultures in Dialogue Krakow, September 6 – 8 2009 The Sixth Congress of the Bishops of Emigration's Recommandations Patriarca melquita reinaugura templo Lunes 10 de noviembre de 2008 the Cathedral Anniversary at Boston November 2008 The Word of God: Episcopal Synod Speech of H. B. Patriarch Gregorios III Rome October 2008 The sixth Congress of the Bishops of Emigration In Acapulco & Mexico City November 3-9 2008 Peace Prize Award Ceremony Muenster-Germany October 11, 2008 Salut paulinien de S.B. Rome 8/10/2008 Patriarch Gregorios in Manchester and London, England Manchester – Chapter General of St. Lazarus Patrirch Gregorios III Canterbury-England July 2008 H.B. attends International Forum on Jerusalem in Istanbul 15-17 November, 2007 Visit of His Beatitude Gregorios III to Cologne, Germany, 30 August-2 September Visite de Sa Béatitude Gregorios III pour Suisse 20- 23 avril 2007 Visit of H.B. Gregorios III to Prague: Carlsbad & Marienbad, 28-30 October 2006 Pictures of H.B. Gregorios III in the official visit to Slovakia 22-28 September 2006 Two days of talks and news conferences for H.B. Gregorios III in Paris 13-15 September 2006 Deux journées d’entretiens et d’informations pour S.B. Gregorios III à Paris + Photos Visit of His Beatitude Gregorios III to London, England 15-18 September 2006 Photos prises au cours de la visite de S.B. à Genève 12-13 Septembre Photos of H.B. in San Gualtero-Lodi 9-11 September 2006 Photos of H.B. in Germany-The German Association of the Holy Land- 2006 September 4 Sa Béatitude Gregorios III en Allemagne septembre 2006 Photos: DINO (Deutsche Initiative fur den Nahen Osten) à Munster Deutsche initiative fur den Nahen Osten: Grundlagen 5th CONGRESS OF THE MELKITE CATHOLIC BISHOPS OF AMERICA & OCEANIA In Montreal, June 11-18, 2006 150e anniversaire de l'OEuvre d'Orient-Paris-Rome The visit of His Beatitude Gregorius III to St John Chrysostom Parish-London- Lecture at the Brunei Theatre, SOAS (University of London) Friday 11 November 2005 Fifth General Congregation - Vatican - October 3rd-23rd 2005 Liturgy the basis of Christian Unity- Orientale Lumen 10-13 May 2004
H.B. attends International Forum on Jerusalem in Istanbul 15-17 November, 2007More than 5000 individuals from over 60 countries, among them Christian and Muslim religious leaders, political and intellectual leaders, as well as representatives of trades unions and civil institutions, the media and the literary world, attended this TGTV-organised conference in Istanbul, entitled “Protecting the Face of Civilization,” to consider the situation of Jerusalem (al-Quds) and the Palestinian people, in the light of the forthcoming peace talks. His Beatitude was one of the leaders of an inter-faith delegation from Syria. Among those giving “Insiders’ Testimony” to the current situation in Jerusalem were There follows a summary of conclusions from the conference’s published Declaration in Support of al-Quds on 17 November: • Al-Quds, city of peace, cradle of civilization and sacred and holy land…must remain as a model of dialogue between civilizations and symbol for the most holy values of forgiveness, justice and tolerance. The Forum concluded with a prayer, “Today we meet for Al-Quds and tomorrow may we meet in Al-Quds, insh’Allah.” Amen.
Visit of His Beatitude Gregorios III to Cologne, Germany, 30 August-2 September
His Beatitude visited Cologne, Germany, arriving by air at Frankfurt on 30 August and meeting with members of the Order of St. Lazarus at the Hotel Jolly, on the evening of his arrival. Next day, His Beatitude attended a formal reception by the Mayor of Cologne, Fritz Schramma, to mark the opening of the DINO Symposium (German Initiative for the Middle East), entitled “Ways to Peace.” DINO’s purpose is “to support and facilitate the understanding of the complicated contexts (of the situation in the Middle East) by raising awareness, preventing and combating prejudices and supporting rapprochement between the parties to the conflict, without however formulating political statements or being subject to political influence.” The Symposium continued on 1 September, meeting at the Old Council House in the city centre. The morning included talks and workshops, before a working convivial lunch, followed by an afternoon platform discussion, broadcast on radio and television. The discussion, chaired by the founder of DINO, Manfred Erdenberger, included His Beatitude, Prof. Dr. Joachim Gardemann, head of the central agency for humanitarian assistance of the FH Muenster, Rudolf Dressler, former Ambassador of the Federal Republic to Israel and Abdallah Frangi, foreign policy spokesman for the Palestinian Fatah party.
After leaving Germany, His Beatitude went on to Romania, where he attended the Third European Ecumenical Assembly at Sibiu. The message of this gathering includes ten recommendations for the future. Addressing the situation in Europe today, the assembly appealed to the continent’s churches to support immigrants and other ethnic minorities and to “offer better pastoral care for migrants, asylum seekers and refugees”. His Beatitude expressed himself particularly pleased with “wonderful meetings with the Orthodox” Christians he met in Romania.
Le vendredi 20 avril 2007, Sa Béatitude s’est dirigé pour la Suisse à l’invitation de l’Association Kirche in Not (Eglise en Détresse) pour donner une conférence dans la paroisse de Winkeln près de Sankt Gallen, chez le Rev. Père Erwin Keller ancien ami de Sa Béatitude, sous le thème « Paix, Convivialité et Présence Chrétienne au Moyen Orient ».
Visite pour l’Allemagne 27-28 avril 2007 Visite pour l’Italie – Piacenza 29 Avril – 1 Mai 2007
Visit of H.B. Gregorios III to Prague: Carlsbad & Marienbad, 28-30 October 2006Invited by the Order of Saint Lazarus in Prague-Czech Republic, H.B. Gregorios III, the spiritual protector, presided the ceremony of Investiture of new members from Czech Republic and Romania. The ceremony took place on 28 and 29 October 2006 in the Assomption church in Prague. In the pictures, the oecumenical prayer of investiture.
The official visit of H.B. to Slovakia, 22-28 September 2006
Friday 22 September 2006 Bratislava is the capital of Slovakia; it is the country’s biggest city and an important economic and cultural centre, with a population of more than 450.000 inhabitants. The city, which is about 40 miles from Vienna, is crossed by the Danube. A city filled with historic memories from the Middle Ages, it was, before independence, an important centre in the life of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy. During the Ottoman occupation of Hungary, it was the residence of the Primates of Hungary in what is still today the Primatial Palace (Primacialny), and it is there that during this same period, were crowned the Apostolic Kings of Hungary. Formerly under the jurisdiction of the Archdiocese of Eger (Hungary), this part of Slovakia was separated from it in 1922 to form the Apostolic Administration of Trnava, becoming an Archdiocese in 1977, with the name of Bratislava-Trnava from 1995; the Archbishop still resides at Trnava, but one of his Auxiliary Bishops permanently resides in Bratislava, where the Latin Great Seminary is also to be found. Saturday 23 September 2006 Sunday, 24 September 2006 Monday, 25 September, 2006 Tuesday, 26 September, 2006 Wednesday 27 September 2006 Thursday, 28 September, 2006
www.grkat.nfo.sk/Bratislava/patriarcha2006.html
Visit of His Beatitude Gregorios III to London, England 15-18 September 2006Friday, 15 September 3 p.m. Arrival at Waterloo Station with Fr. Nicolas Antiba and residence at K+K Hotel George, (Templeton Place, SW5) Saturday, 16 September 8 a.m. Telephone interview with “The Universe” about the Lebanon Sunday, 17 September 11:30 a.m. Celebration of the Divine Liturgy, with Fr. Nicolas, Fr. Shafiq and other clergy at St. John Chrysostom Parish, St. Barnabas Church, Pimlico Road, SW1. H.B. gave a sermon on the situation in Lebanon and his thoughts about the papal lecture Monday, 18 September 9.30 a.m. Meeting at Lambeth Palace with His Grace Rowan Williams, Archbishop of Canterbury, Rev. Anthony Ball and Rev. David Peck, to discuss the situation in Lebanon (See separate text.)
Meeting between His Beatitude Gregorios III,
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Sa Béatitude Gregorios III, patriarche d’Antioche et de tout l’Orient, d’Alexandrie et de Jérusalem des Grecs-Melkites Catholiques achève une visite en Allemagne articulée autour de deux événements majeurs ; le congrès fondateur de DINO a Munster, Initiative allemande pour le Proche-Orient, et la réunion annuelle de la section allemande de l’Ordre Patriarcal de la Sainte Croix de Jérusalem.
DINO a été fondée à l’initiative de Manfred Erdenberger, rédacteur en chef et journaliste vedette de WDR – avec le soutien de Sa Béatitude Gregorios III - pour que l’Allemagne et l’Europe puissent avoir un rôle clef dans la recherche de la paix au Proche-Orient. Tout un symbole, la réunion a eu lieu dans la salle même où a été signée la paix de Westphalie qui, en 1648, a mis fin à la guerre de 30 ans.
C’est à Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) que la réunion annuelle (1-3 septembre 2006) de la section allemande de l’Ordre Patriarcal de la Sainte Croix de Jérusalem s’est ouverte sous la présidence de Sa Béatitude Gregorios III. A cette occasion, Sa Béatitude a donnée une conférence sous le titre de « Paix, convivialité et présence chrétienne au Proche-Orient » et a fait diffuser un film décrivant et montrant les destructions des diocèses de Tyr, Marjeyoun et Baalbeck. Tyr étant véritablement une éparchie sinistrée.
La section allemande de l’Ordre Patriarcal de la Sainte Croix de Jérusalem soutient activement et depuis de longues années de très nombreux projets dont des écoles en Terre Sainte et des orphelinats en Syrie et au Liban.
La Divine Liturgie a été célébrée, le samedi 2 septembre, à la cathédrale d’Aix-la-Chapelle en présence d’un grand nombre de prêtres et de prélats.
Sa Béatitude a consacré la journée du 4 septembre à la visite de nombreuses institutions dont la Sainte Enfance, Misereor, Missio et l’Association de Terre-Sainte à Cologne.
A ces associations qu’il connaît depuis de très longues années et qui ont soutenu et continuent à soutenir ses très nombreux projets depuis les années 60, Sa Béatitude a dit toute l’horreur de cette guerre destructrice en leur décrivant les églises et les maisons détruites en particulier dans les villages frontaliers du sud du Liban.
Sa Béatitude a souligné le rôle des Eglises dans la quête de la paix au Proche-Orient seule solution aux crises qui déchirent la région semant la guerre, la violence, le fondamentalisme et la haine. Ses interlocuteurs ont saisi l’importance vitale du soutien que les Eglises d’Europe peuvent et doivent apporter à cette présence chrétienne qui témoigne et qui sert au sein de la société arabe et du monde islamique.
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Initiative für Nahen Osten in Münster gegründet
Westfälischer Frieden Vorbild für Initiative "Gerechte Wege zum Frieden“
Münster, 1. September 06 * Die Prämissen des Westfälischen Friedens von 1648 hat sich die neu gegründete "Deutsche Initiative für den Nahen Osten" (D.I.N.O.), zum Vorbild für ihr Engagement genommen, Wege und Vorstöße zu einem gerechten Frieden im Nahen Osten zu unterstützen. Wie der Sprecher der Initiative, der frühere WDR-Chefredakteur Manfred Erdenberger, in Münster erläuterte, will die überparteiliche und interreligiöse Initiative mit einem Netzwerk von engagierten Menschen aus allen Bereichen den Versuch unternehmen, durch Aufklärungsarbeit das Verständnis für die komplizierten Zusammenhänge im Nahen Osten zu fördern sowie Vorbehalte und Intoleranz gegenüber allen Konfliktparteien abbauen.
Es sollen Informationen gesammelt, weitergegeben und Partner motiviert werden sich aktiv zu beteiligen. Mindestens einmal im Jahr sowie bei aktuellen Anlässen wird die Initiative die Situation im Nahen Osten öffentlich rekapitulieren und auf Möglichkeiten zu Fortschritten hinweisen.
Ziel sei es, die drei Kernforderungen des Westfälischen Friedens "Friede ist das höchste Gut“, "Befleißigt Euch der Gerechtigkeit, die Ihr auf Erden richtet" und "Man höre beide Parteien“ auch im Nahen Osten Gehör zu verschaffen. Deutschland kommt nach Auffassung der Initiative eine besondere Verantwortung zu. Deshalb bedürften die Menschen dieser krisengeschüttelten Region mehr denn je und angesichts der aktuellen Entwicklungen Unterstützung über die tagespolitischen Aspekte hinaus.
Mitglieder der Initiative, die ihren Sitz in Münster nehmen wird, sind
Manfred Erdenberger, Sprecher der Initiative, früherer WDR-Chefredakteur
Prof. Dr. Rita Süßmuth, ehemalige Bundestagspräsidentin,
Avi Primor, langjähriger Botschafter Israels in Deutschland
Seine Seligkeit Gregorius III., Griechisch-Katholischer Patriarch von Antiochien und den ganzen Orient, von Alexandrien und von Jerusalem,
Manfred Kock, früherer Ratsvorsitzende der EKD in Deutschland,
Dr. Mitri Raheb, Bethlehemer Pfarrer der Ev.-Luth. Weihnachtskirche und Direktor des Internationalen Begegnungszentrums,
Msgr. Martin Hülskamp, Bischöflicher Offizial, Bistum Münster,
Jürgen Bremer, Kommunikationschef des Fernsehsenders PHOENIX
Rudolf Dressler, langjähriger Botschafter der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in Israel
Rückfragen an: Manfred Erdenberger
Deutsche Initiative für den Nahen Osten (DINO)
Sprecher
Manfred Erdenberger
Kiefernweg 19
D-50767 Köln
Tel.: +49 (0)2 21 –
8 01 32 40
Fax: +49 (0)2 21 –
8 01 32 41
Geschäftsführer: Jürgen Bremer
Juergen.bremer@wdr.de
Grundlage für die Überlegungen zum Projekt „DINO“ – (Deutsche Initiative für den Nahen Osten) – waren viele Gespräche, die Manfred Erdenberger, langjähriger Chefredakteur und Politischer Chefkorrespondent des WDR sowie Commander des Ordens des Heiligen Lazarus zu Jerusalem mit Vertretern aus Politik und Kirche(n) geführt hat. Dabei ging es um die Frage, ob es nicht einen Weg gibt, Initiativen für den Nahen Osten aus Deutschland öffentlich und publizitätswirksam zu begleiten und zu unterstützen.
Geprägt durch seine ständigen Reisen in und seine Berichterstattung aus dem Nahen Osten in den letzten zehn Jahren, regte er an, einen Freundeskreis Gleichgesinnter zu gründen, der den Prozess zu Frieden und Ausgleich im Nahen Osten konstruktiv begleitet. DINO will einmal im Jahr die Situation im Nahen Osten öffentlich rekapitulieren und auf Möglichkeiten zu Fortschritten hinweisen.
Dieser Kreis soll sich bei aktuellen Anlässen überparteilich und interreligiös zu Entwicklungen und Ereignissen im Nahen Osten öffentlich zu Wort melden und den für alle Parteien im Nahen Osten schwierigen Prozess der Annäherung moderierend unterstützen.
Der Nahe Osten als Wiege dreier großer Weltreligionen verdient eine besondere Aufmerksamkeit. Vor allem aber die Menschen in dieser immer wieder von Krisen und Kriegen geschüttelten Region bedürfen unserer intensiven Unterstützung über die tagespolitischen Aspekte hinaus. Dabei kommt Europa, insbesondere den Deutschen, eine besondere Verantwortung zu.
Im Kern geht es um den andauernden Konflikt zwischen Israel und den Palästinensern, aber auch um die Situation in den Nachbarstaaten von Ägypten über den Libanon, Jordanien und Syrien bis hin zu den Vorgängen im Irak und Iran. Mit anderen Worten: Es muss ein stärkerer Focus auch auf die Anrainerstaaten in der Region gelenkt werden. Es geht darum, die Probleme auf der täglichen Agenda und im Blickfeld der Öffentlichkeit zu halten.
Vor diesem Hintergrund will DINO – fern von (partei-)politischen Stellungnahmen und Einflüssen – mit einem Netzwerk engagierter Menschen aus allen Bereichen, den Versuch unternehmen, durch engagierte Aufklärungsarbeit das Verständnis für die komplizierten Zusammenhänge zu fördern, Vorbehalte aller Art und Intoleranz abzubauen und Chancen der Annäherung unter den streitenden Parteien auszuloten und zu unterstützen. Kurz gesagt: Informationen sammeln und weitergeben, Partner motivieren und vermitteln, Toleranz erzeugen.
Dabei sind die persönlichen Kontakte aller Mitglieder der DINO-Initiative von unschätzbarem Wert und haben in der Bündelung ein besonderes Gewicht. Vorträge, Interviews, Erklärungen jenseits der bekannten Stellungnahmen der Politiker und der Militärs, Podiumsdiskussionen und direkte Gespräche können unserer Auffassung nach einen wichtigen Beitrag leisten – und zwar in der Öffentlichkeit wie im Hintergrund.
Mit dem Sitz der Initiative und den Jahrestreffen in Münster knüpfen wir an die Tradition des Westfälischen Friedens von 1648 an, der Europa nach einem verheerenden 30jährigen Krieg den ersehnten Frieden brachte und die politischen wie religiösen Verhältnisse neu ordnete. Im Friedenssaal des Rathauses finden sich noch heute die Grundlagen für eben diese historische Übereinkunft, die als Modell für viele Krisenregionen dieser Erde – zu aller erst Nahen Osten! – dienen sollte:
„Pax optima rerum“ – „...der Friede ist das höchste Gut“ – steht auf der Herdplatte im Kamin des Friedenssaales des Rathauses, in Sichtweite dieses Domes. Dazu am Kronleuchter: „Befleissigt Euch der Gerechtigkeit, die ihr auf Erden richtet...!“, und auf der Gerichtsschranke „Man höre beide Parteien“. Als Gebrauchsanweisung drei schlichte Sätze, die der Schlüssel zum Frieden von 1648 waren und Erfahrungen mit Leid und Tod, Verwüstung und Vertreibung, religiöse Verblendung und Intoleranz beendeten.
Ein Friede, von dem der frühere Bundespräsident Roman Herzog schrieb: „Er beeinflusste tief und dauerhaft die zwischenstaatlichen Beziehungen und den Kanon der Grund- und Menschenrechte, die Verfassungen einer Reihe europäischer Glaubensgemeinschaften in Europa. Vor allem bleibt er Vorbild für die Fähigkeit, nach Zeiten ungeheuren Schreckens wieder eine auf gegenseitige Achtung gegründete Ordnung zu stiften.“
Zu DINO – Deutsche Initiative für den Nahen Osten – gehören von Beginn an Manfred Kock, der ehemalige Ratsvorsitzende der EKD in Deutschland, sowie der Bethlehemer Pfarrer der Ev.-luth. Weihnachtskirche und Direktor des Internationalen Begegnungszentrums, Dr. Mitri Raheb. Dr. Raheb wird im November dieses Jahres mit dem renommierten „Tschelebi-Friedenspreis 2006“ des Zentralinstituts Islam-Archiv Deutschland in Soest ausgezeichnet.
Ebenfalls seit Beginn dabei sind der Münsteraner Domkapitular und Prior des Ritterordens vom Heiligen Grab zu Jerusalem, Monsignore Martin Hülskamp, Avi Primor, der langjährige Botschafter Israels in Deutschland, sowie der Kommunikationschef des Ereigniskanals von ARD und ZDF, PHOENIX, Jürgen Bremer.
Primor arbeitet inzwischen als Leiter des Zentrums für Europäische Studien (an der Privatuniversität von Herzliyya (IDC)) und als Publizist. An diesem Zentrum kooperiert er mit Vertretern der Palästinensischen Universität von Ost-Jerusalem und Ammans/Jordanien. Damit schlägt er sowohl eine Brücke in die Region als auch nach Europa.
Erweitert wurde die Runde sehr schnell um den früheren und im Januar verstorbenen Bundespräsidenten Dr. h.c. Johannes Rau, den Manfred Kock für ein Engagement gewinnen konnte. Rau hat sich als Ministerpräsident, Bundesrats- und Bundespräsident sowie innerhalb der Ev. Kirche stets für einen Ausgleich im Nahen Osten eingesetzt und ist seit 1986 als erster Deutscher Ehrendoktor der Universität von Haifa. Er ist zugleich Ehrenmitglied des Jerusalemer „Israel-Museums“. Zu der Runde gehörte bis zum seinem Tode im April 2006 auch der Präsident des Zentralrats der Juden in Deutschland, Paul Spiegel.
Neu in der Runde ist seit März 2006 die frühere Bundestagspräsidentin, Frau Prof. Dr. Rita Süssmuth. Sie hat sich in vielfältiger Form für die Belange eines friedlichen Miteinanders der Menschen verschiedener Herkunft und Religion eingesetzt und genießt national wie internnational ein hohes Ansehen. Die DINO-Runde begrüßt mit Respekt und Dank ihre Bereitschaft zur Mitarbeit in diesem ehrenamtlich engagierten und tätigen Gremium.
Im Juni 2006 wurde der Kreis erweitert um Seine Seligkeit Gregorios III., Griechisch-Katholischer Patriarch von Antiochien und dem ganzen Orient, von Alexandrien und von Jerusalem. Seine Begründung für die Teilnahme: „26 Jahre im Heiligen Land sind für mich ein Engagement für diesen gewünschten Frieden im Heiligen Land, der der Schlüssel ist für den Frieden im Nahen Osten und in der ganzen Welt“.
Inzwischen hat auch Bundespräsident Prof. Dr. Horst Köhler durch den Leiter der Abteilung Außenpolitik im Bundespräsidialamt, Dr. Wolf Kischlat, auf die schriftliche Vorstellung der Initiative antworten lassen. Er schreibt u.a.:
„Der Bundespräsident schätzt insbesondere den positiven Beitrag, den die Zivilgesellschaft zur Moderation – und vielleicht einmal zur Lösung – des Nahostkonfliktes leistet... Er teilt die Ziele Ihrer Deutschen Initiative für den Nahen Osten.“
Ferner bittet der Bundespräsident um Verständnis, dass er mit Rücksicht auf das Amt und die damit verbundene Neutralität mit Unterstützungszusagen „äußerst restriktiv umgehen muss“. Er übermittelt aber gleichzeitig „gute Wünsche für den weiteren Erfolg Ihrer Arbeit“. Wir denken, auch das ist ein Zeichen der Ermutigung und Unterstützung unserer anspruchsvollen Ziele.
Rudolf Dressler, langjähriger Botschafter der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in Israel, vormals SPD-MdB und Parlamentarischer Staatssekretär, hat sich jetzt ebenfalls der DINO-Initiative angeschlossen. Er hat sich weit über seine diplomatische Tätigkeit hinaus für die Region des Nahen Ostens, insbesondere in Israel und Palästina, für eine friedliche Lösung der Konflikte eingesetzt. Rudolf Dressler wird sein bisheriges Engagement für die Region und den europäischen Part auch bei DINO weiter aufrechterhalten.
Seine Mitarbeit und Unterstützung hat Anfang September 2006 auch der langjährige deutsche Außenminister und Vizekanzler der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Dr. Klaus Kinkel zugesagt. Er ist derzeit u.a. Vorsitzender der Stiftung der Deutschen Telekom.
Dr. Kinkel hat sich über viele Jahre aktiv für Frieden und Verständigung im Nahen Osten eingesetzt und vor allem in seiner Arbeit für die Stiftung immer wieder Projekte und Begegnungen gefördert. Trotz seiner vielfältigen Ämter und Verpflichtungen ist er nun nach intensiven Kontakten mit DINO-Sprecher Manfred Erdenberger der Initiative beigetreten.
Köln, im September 2006
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By Bishop John A. Elya Back to the top
The Melkite Catholic Bishops of America & Oceania held their 5th Congress in Montreal on June 12—18, 2006.
Presided over by His Beatitude Gregorios III, Patriarch of Antioch and All the East, of Alexandria and Jerusalem, the Congress was hosted by Bishop Ibrahim Ibrahim, Eparch of Montreal and All Canada. The participants were hosted at Villa St. Martin, Cartier Ville, Montreal, where most of the meetings took place.
As in the past Congresses, participants of this Fifth Congress included the Melkite hierarchs of the countries of emigration where an official Melkite Catholic jurisdiction is established, namely:
Canada, Bishop Ibrahim Ibrahim, BSO, Melkite Eparch of Montreal and All Canada;
Australia, Bishop Issam John Darwish, BSO, Melkite Eparch of Australia and New Zealand, Executive Secretary of the Congress;
Brazil, Archbishop Fares Maakaroun, MSP, Melkite Eparch of Sao Paulo and All Brazil;
the United States of America, Archbishop Cyril Salim Bustros, MSP, Eparch of Newton and All the United States; Bishop John Adel Elya, BSO, Eparch Emeritus of Newton, and Bishop Nicholas Samra, Titular Bishop of Gerash, former Auxiliary Bishop of Newton;
And Venezuela, Bishop George Kahhaleh Zouhairaty, BAO, Apostolic Eparch of Venezuela.
Archimandrite Gabriel Ghanoum, BSO, Patriarcal Administrator of the Melkite Community of Mexico attended as member.
Other participants as observers included Archimandrite Nicholas Antiba, BAO, accompanying His Beaitude and acting as recording Secretary; Father Robert Rabbat. Editor-in-Chief of Sophia Magazine, Archimandrite Paul Abdallah Sayegh, BSO, Vicar General of the Eparchy of Australia, accompanying Bishop Issam; and the local priests of the Parish of St. Sauveur: Fathers Antoine Saad, BSO, Dany Touma, BSO & Makarios Wehbeh, BSO.
Missing was a representative from Argentina, where the Apostolic Exarch had resigned and a new Eparch is awaited to be chosen by the Holy Father Pope Benedick XVI. A “Terna” (three candidates) was elected by the June, 2006 Melkie Synod and presented to the Pope..
On Sunday, June 11, 8:00 PM, as an introduction to the Congress, a Recital was offered by “La Chorale d’Antioche,” of the Parish of St. Sauveur, directed by Father Dany Touma, BSO, at the church of St. Viateur in Montreal.
Monday, June 12, 3:00 PM – First session of the Congress. Discussion and approval of the Schedule. A short discussion took place regarding the name of this bi-annual assembly. It was agreed to call it the Congress of the Bishops of America & Oceania, rather than the Bishops of Emigration or of the Diaspora.
5:00 PM – Vesper Service with the priests of the Eparchy at Villa St. Martin.
7:00 PM – Solemn Opening of the Congress by His Beatitude, at the “Melkite Center of Montreal, followed by Reception and Dinner.
Tuesday, June 13, 9:30 AM – 2nd Session of the Congress. “The Experience of the Married priesthood in the countries of Emigration.” Presented by Bishop John Issam Darwish, of Australia & New Zealand,
11:00 AM – 3rd Session. “The Revival of Our Pastoral Work.” By Bishop John A. Elya, Eparch Emeritus of Newton,
4:00 PM – 4th Session – “Difficulties in Our Pastoral Work.” By Archbishop Fares Maakaroun of Brazil.
6:30 PM – Visit to the Urgel Bourgie Gardens (Cemetery), at the graves of Bishop Sleiman Hajjar, former Eparch of Montreal and Archimanadrite George Coriaty, BSO.. A short funeral service was offered for them and for other departed brothers Archbishop Ignatius Raad of Saida, Lebanon, Archbishop Joseph Raya of Akka & Nazareth; Archimandrite Antoine Mouhanna of Mexico, and Archimandrite André Karamé of Buenas Aires, Argentina and Archimandrite Fouad Nasr , BSO.
8:00 PM – Reception and Dinner offered at the Lebanese Consulate by Mr/Mrs Khalil ElHabre, Consul General of Lebanon in Montreal.
Wednesday, June 14, 9:30 PM – 5th Session. “Our Relations with the Latin (Roman Catholic) Churches in the Diaspoa.” By Bishop George Kahhale Zouhaitaty of Venezuela, and Archimandrite Gabriel Ghanoum about Mexico.
11:00 PM – 6th Session. “Our Relations with the Eastern Churches
in the Diaspora.” By Archbishop Cyril Bustros of Newton, USA.
And a Report on the coming “Encounter of the Eastern Catholic Churches of Canada and the United States of America.” By Bishop Nicholas Samra, Director of the Encounter.
In the afternoon, the Fathers of the Congress traveled to Ottawa. They met with the parishioners of Saints Peter and Paul Melkite Church and their priests Archimandrite Habib Kwaiter, BSO aand Francois Beirouti; and they stayed overnight in Ottawa. They celebrated with them the Vespers of the Feast of Corpus Christi, followed by a Reception in the Church Hall.
On Thursday, June 15, after celebrating the Divine Liturgy of the Feast of Corpus Christi, at the Church of Sts. Peter and Paul, the Fathers visited the Parliament and the Senate of Canada where they were received by Senator Pierre DeBané.
At 10:30 AM, a lecture was offered by Senator Pierre DeBané, “A View of our Melkite Church in the world.” The Senator spoke about the role of the laity in the Church and his experience regarding “The Melkite International Foundation, - A Project to Deepen Solidarity among the Melkites of the World.” This project was approved by the Melkite Synod in October, 1990.
During the visit to the Parliament Building, His Beatitude Patriarch Gregorios accompanied by Bishop Ibrahim had a 25 minute meeting with His Excellency Stephen Harper, Prime Minister of Canada. The main topic was about the Melkite Church in Canada and in the East.
At 12:00 PM, the Fathers went for a Reception and Dinner at the Apostolic Nunciature of Canada at the invitation of the Papal Nuncio Archbishop Luigi Ventura. After dinner, they returned to Montreal.
In the evening, a Reception was given in honor of His Beatitude at the house of His Excellency Fares El Attar, Honorary Consul of Syria.
Friday, June 16, 9:30 AM – 7th Session. “The Translation of Liturgical Texts in English and Spanish.” Presented by His Beatitude the Patriarch.
11:00 AM – 8th Session. “The Melkite International Association.” (Internet). By Bishop Issam John Darwish of Australia & New Zealand.
3:00 PM – “Future Vision of our Melkite Church in the Countries of Emigration.” By Bishop Ibrahim Ibrahim of Canada.
6:30 PM – Ground Breaking of the new Cathedral of the St. Sauveur in Montreal. Followed by Reception in the Melkite Center of Montreal (Same grounds).
Saturday, June 17, 9:30 AM – Final Session. Recommendations and decisions. The Final Report.
6:30 PM – Reception and Dinner in the house of the Chairman of the Eparchial Pastoral Council of the St. Sauveur Parish and General Director of the Construction Project, Joseph Chalhoub and his wife Sandie.
On Sunday, June 18, at 12:00 noon, the 5th Congress of the Bishops of America and Oceania was concluded with the Patriarchal Divine Liturgy at Our Lady of the Angels Church in Montreal.
RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The following (20) resolutions and recommendations taken by the 5th Congress of bishops of America and Oceania were read by Bishop Ibrahim Ibrahim during the Divine Liturgy at the Conclusion of the Congress:
MARRIED PRIESTS
1 – The Fathers praise the work of the priests, celibate, married or religious and of the deacons in their Eparchies. They appreciate their sacrifices and bless their efforts and their pastoral work.
2 – The Fathers continue their endeavors to confirm our Eastern tradition to have married priests in the Eparchies of Emigration as is the case in the Patriarchal Regions.
THE BOOK OF THE DIVINE LITURGY
3 - The Fathers decided to form a Liturgical Commission working to unify the text of the Divine Liturgy in the common languages of the Countries of Emigration; namely the English, the French and the Spanish.
REGARDING PASTORAL WORK
4 - The Fathers are seeking to establish congregations of men and women to the service of our dedicated to the service of our children in the Diaspora.
5 – The Fathers decided to adopt the project of “the Melkite International Association” aiming to build communication between the faithful of our Church who are spread throughout the world, through an electronic net containing social, cultural and spiritual programs. They appointed the Most Reverend Issam John Darwish to pursue this project.
6 – The Fathers decided to adopt the project of “the International Melkite Foundation” exposed to them by Senator Pierre De Bané, Member of the Senate of Canada, and to revive it in the Eparchies of Emigration. They appointed the Most Reverend Ibrahim to pursue this subject.
7 – His Beatitude the Patriarch is the Patron of this new Institution.
8 – The Fathers decided to support the project of “the Melkite Solidarity” presented by His Beatitude the Patriarch, through which each bishop will collect the names of those who wish to participate in this project.
9 – The Fathers welcome in their churches all the faithful from the different churches and groups. They will make them participate in our astern heritage through the Liturgy and other activities.
WAYS TO REVIVE THE PASTORAL WORK
10 – The Fathers will endeavor to find new and attractive ways to revive the pastoral work and to spread the Good News.
11 – The Fathers insist on the role of the liturgical prayer in the life of the priest and of the groups in the parishes. They will work to establish prayer groups.
RELATIONS WITH THE EASTERN CHURCHES
12 – The Fathers will work toward a greater rapprochement among the Eastern Churches, considering that this is a fundamental part of their historic mission.
13 – The Fathers will work, in their respective Eparchies, to coordinate with the other Eastern Church regarding the subjects common among them.
RELATIONS WITH THE LATIN CHURCHES
14 – The Fathers highly appreciate the support that the Latin Curches offer to our churches.
15 – The Fathers will work toward cooperation with the local Latin priests in responding to the needs of the faithful.
VISION FOR THE FUTURE OF OUR CHURCH IN THE DIASPORA
16 – The Fathers will work toward fostering the role of the laity in all the domains in the life of the Church, especially regarding the role of the various Eparchial and parish councils.
17 – The Fathers recommend to encourage the establishment of a special budget to secure the expenses needed for evangelization in the parishes as for religious education books, parochial bulletins, religious publications, Internet pages, liturgical music, liturgical books and other various didactic programs.
18 – The Fathers recommend to perform the liturgical and pastoral services in the local languages while keeping the Arabic language.
19 – The Fathers value the responsibilities assumed by the young people in their parishes. They invite them for more dedication to their church and more commitment to its mission.
20 – His Beatitude the Patriarch blesses the work of the Congress of the Melkite Greek Catholic Bishops in America and Oceania for the important role that it has for the prosperity and progress of our Eparchies.
On the consensus of all the participants, the 5th Congress of the Bishops 0f America & Oceania has been very successful, very well organized and also very enjoyable. It was decided that the 6th Congress will take place in Brazil in 2008.
Here is a list of the four preceding Congresses.
First Congress held at Sao Paulo, Brazil, on April 28-May 4, 1997. hosted and preside by Bishop Boutros Mouallem, MSP, Eparch of Sao Paolo.
Second Congress held at Caracas, Venezuela on April 27-May 3, 1998, hosted and presided by Bishop George Kahale Zuhairaty, BAO, Eparch of aracas and All Venezuela.
Third Congress held in Sydney & Melbourne, Australia, on July 8-16, 2000, hosted and presided by Bishop Issam John Darwish, Eparch of Australia and New Zeeland.
The Fourth Congress on May 11-20, 2001, held in Boston, Detroit and Cleveland, USA, presided over by His Beatitude Patriarch Gregorios III, Sponsored by Bishop John A. Elya, Eparch of Newton.
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Le cinquième Congrès des Évêques Grecs- Melkites catholiques dans les pays de la Diaspora a clôturé ses séances le dimanche 18 juin 2006. Ce Congrès, qui a duré une semaine complète, s’est tenu sous la prévidence de Sa Béatitude le patriarche Grégoire III Laham, patriarche d’Antioche et de tout l’Orient, d’Alexandrie et de Jérusalem, la direction de l’ordinaire de l’éparchie Melkite du Canada, Monseigneur Ibrahim Ibrahim, et la direction de Monseigneur Issam Darwich, évêque d’Australie et de la Nouvelle-Zélande.
En marge des actes du Congrès, voici quelques rencontres et activités importantes qui eurent lieu :
- Dimanche 11 juin 2006 : Assistance à une soirée de chants à l’occasion de la Pentecôte, animée par la chorale d’Antioche, sous la direction du Père Dany Touma.
- Lundi 12 juin 2006 : Ouverture du Congrès en présence d’un grand public religieux, politique et civil, au Centre Melkite de Montréal.
- Mardi 13 juin 2006 : Prière d’absoute devant la tombe du très regretté Monseigneur Sleiman Hajjar et du regretté Archimandrite Georges Coriati. La prière fut offerte aussi pour le repos de l’âme des très regrettés Messeigneurs Ignace Raad et Joseph Raya ainsi que des archimandrites Fouad Nasr, Antoine Mouhanna et André Karamé. Ensuite tout le monde s’est dirigé à Outremont pour la visite du siège de l’Évêché. Suivit un souper offert par l’honorable Consul général du Liban, Monsieur Khalil El Habr.
- Mercredi 14 juin 2006 : Tout le monde s’est dirigé vers Ottawa où furent célébrées les vêpres propres à la Fête du Saint Sacrement, suivies d’une rencontre avec un grand public composé des membres et des invités de la paroisse.
- Jeudi 15 juin 2006 : Dans la matinée, célébration de la Divine Liturgie, puis tout le monde s’est dirigé vers le Parlement où ils furent accueillis par le Sénateur Pierre De Bané, qui a donné une conférence sur le rôle des laïcs dans l’Église, à travers son expérience dans le projet de « La Fondation Melkite Internationale ». Cette rencontre s’est tenue dans le bureau privé du président du Sénat. À 10h45, Sa Béatitude, accompagné de l’Ordinaire du lieu et Président du Congrès, Monseigneur Ibrahim Ibrahim, rencontra le Premier Ministre Monsieur Stephen Harper. Cette rencontre dura environ 25 minutes, où furent traités des sujets concernant la vie de l’Église en Orient et au Canada. Ensuite tout le monde s’est dirigé à la Nonciature Apostolique où ils prirent le repas de midi à la table du Nonce Apostolique Monseigneur Luigi Ventura. Puis retour à Montréal où, le soir, une réception accueillait tout le monde dans le domaine de l’honorable Consul honoraire de Syrie, Monsieur Farès El Attar.
- Vendredi 16 juin 2006 : Bénédiction de la terre où sera construite la nouvelle cathédrale
St- Sauveur, suivie d’une grande réception dans la salle du Centre Melkite de Montréal.
- Samedi 17 juin 2006 : Souper chez Monsieur Joseph Chalhoub, président du comité de la
Cathédrale et directeur du projet de la construction.
- Dimanche 18 juin 2006 : Célébration de la Divine Liturgie avec les paroissiens, présidée
par Sa Béatitude, et au cours de laquelle Monseigneur Ibrahim Ibrahim fit connaître les
décisions et les recommandations suivantes du Congrès :
- Les prêtres mariés :
Les Pères du Congrès apprécient le travail des prêtres célibataires, mariés ou religieux
et des diacres, dans leurs éparchies respectives, considèrent aussi leurs sacrifices et
bénissent leurs efforts ainsi que leur travail pastoral.
Les Pères du Congrès poursuivent leurs démarches pour que soit reconnue notre tradition
orientale, à savoir la présence de prêtres mariés dans les éparchies de la Diaspora, comme
c’est le cas dans tout le Patriarcat.
- Le Livre de la Divine Liturgie :
Les Pères du Congrès ont décidé de former un comité de liturgie pour unifier le texte de la Divine Liturgie, selon les langues communes dans les pays de la Diaspora, à savoir l’anglais, le français et l’espagnol.
- En ce qui concerne la pastorale :
Les Pères du Congrès cherchent à fonder des Associations d’hommes et de femmes consacrés au service de nos fidèles dans les pays de la Diaspora.
L’adoption du projet « Association Melkite Internationale » a pour but de créer des liens entre les fidèles de notre Église, hommes et femmes, disséminés à travers le monde, et ce, grâce à un réseau électronique, qui comprend des programmes sociaux, culturels et spirituels. Monseigneur Issam Youhanna Darwiche a été chargé de faire suite à ce projet.
Les Pères du Congrès ont décidé d’adopter le projet « Fondation Melkite Internationale », que leur a présenté le sénateur Pierre De Bané, membre du Sénat canadien, et qu’il reprenne vigueur dans les éparchies des pays de la Diaspora. Monseigneur Ibrahim fut chargé d’y faire suite. Sa Béatitude parraine cette nouvelle Fondation.
Les Pères du Congrès ont décidé aussi de soutenir le projet « Solidarité Melkite », qu’a présenté sa Béatitude. Chaque évêque est invité à recueillir des noms de personnes qui veulent participer à ce projet.
Les Pères du Congrès accueillent tous les fidèles de diverses Églises ou communautés dans leurs propres Églises, et travaillent à les associer à notre patrimoine oriental, à travers la liturgie et les activités.
- Comment vivifier le travail pastoral?
Les Pères du Congrès cherchent des moyens nouveaux et attrayants pour vivifier le travail pastoral et répandre l’évangélisation.
Les Pères du Congrès insistent sur le rôle de la prière liturgique dans la vie du prêtre et des communautés, dans les paroisses de leurs éparchies respectives, et travaillent pour fonder des communautés de prière.
- Relations avec les Églises orientales :
Les Pères du Congrès travaillent pour un plus grand rapprochement entre les Églises orientales, considérant que c’est un point essentiel de leur mission historique.
Les Pères du Congrès travaillent aussi, dans leurs propres Éparchies, pour coordonner, avec les autres Églises orientales, les sujets communs entre eux.
- Relations avec les Églises latines :
Les Pères du Congrès considèrent fortement l’appui que les Églises latines offrent à nos Églises.
Les Pères du Congrès travaillent pour collaborer avec les prêtres latins locaux en vue de répondre aux besoins des fidèles.
- Vision d’avenir pour notre Église de la Diaspora :
Les Pères du Congrès travaillent pour trouver et stimuler le rôle des laïcs dans tous les domaines de la vie de l’Église, en particulier en activant le rôle des divers Conseils éparchiaux et paroissiaux.
Les Pères du Congrès recommandent d’encourager l’établissement d’un budget spécial pour assurer les dépenses en vue de l’Évangélisation dans les paroisses, comme les livres de catéchisme, les revues paroissiales, les publications religieuses, les pages d’Internet, la musique liturgique, les livres concernant les célébrations et les divers autres programmes didactiques.
Les Pères du Congrès recommandent la nécessité d’assurer les services liturgiques et pastoraux dans les langues locales, tout en maintenant la langue arabe.
Les Pères du Congrès apprécient les responsabilités assumées par les jeunes dans leurs propres paroisses, et les invitent à plus d’appartenance à leur paroisse et à plus d’engagement dans sa mission.
Sa Béatitude le Patriarche bénit les actes du Congrès des Évêques Grecs- Melkites catholiques d’Amérique et d’Océanie, et souligne son rôle important pour la prospérité et l’évolution de nos Éparchies.
Crédits Photos: M. Olivier Figueros- M. Jean Pierre Marie- Mme Sandrine Marie
L’OEuvre d’Orient , l‘œuvre des Chrétiens de France au service des Chrétiens d’Orient, a célébré en grande pompe, du 15 au 24 mai 2006, à Paris et à Rome, le 150e anniversaire de sa fondation. Sa Béatitude Gregorios III a honoré de sa présence, tant à Rome qu’à Paris, les célébrations du jubilé.
Les responsables de l’OEuvre d’Orient ont réussi le pari de réunir 11 patriarches et évêques majeurs pour une semaine complète de réunions au plus haut niveau, de colloques et de célébrations liturgiques et la France officielle leur a réservé un accueil particulièrement chaleureux. La semaine a commencé par une rencontre riche en enseignement avec le Président Chirac au palais de l’Elysée, au cours de laquelle le président de la République française a notamment déclaré : « Ce 150ème anniversaire manifeste la pérennité et l'étroitesse des liens tissés entre la France et ces Eglises… En participant à l'organisation de cet anniversaire, les autorités françaises réaffirment le prix qu'elles attachent à la présence séculaire de ces communautés qui sont une source de richesse et de diversité. Les chrétiens d'Orient ont toujours été un pont entre Orient et Occident; ils ont contribué, depuis des décennies, à un dialogue des cultures que nous souhaitons voir s'intensifier et s'approfondir. En outre, ces Eglises participent au maintien d'une présence francophone au Proche-Orient à travers l'enseignement et la culture. »
Après le Président Chirac, c’est l’ensemble des autorités françaises qui ont reçu les Patriarches : le ministère des Affaires étrangères, l’Assemblée nationale, le Sénat et la Mairie de Paris. L’ambassadeur du Liban, Madame Sylvie Fadlallah, a tenu à donner un déjeuner en l’honneur des 4 patriarches résidant au Liban.
Sa Béatitude a présidé une table ronde autour du thème « Chrétiens d’Orient, Chrétiens dans la tourmente », sa contribution a tenté de répondre à la question : « Chrétiens du monde arabe, quel avenir ? ».
Par ailleurs un colloque d’une très haute tenue académique a réuni des spécialistes de l’Orient Chrétien qui ont réfléchi toute une journée sur le thème « Perspectives et réalités de l’Orient Chrétien ».
Le programme établi par l’OEuvre d’Orient prévoyait que les patriarches et les évêques des Eglises orientales iraient à la rencontre des paroisses latines tant à Paris qu’en province. Gregorios III a ainsi été reçu par la Paroisse Sainte-Clotilde et en particulier par l’équipe du Service Pastoral d’Etudes Politiques (SPEP) présidé par le curé de la paroisse, M. l’Abbé Matthieu Rougé. Créé en 1992 par le Cardinal Lustiger, le SPEP assure l’aumônerie de l’Assemblée Nationale et du Sénat. Après un échange d’idées riche d’enseignement, Sa Béatitude a présidé la messe quotidienne à la Basilique et y a donné le sermon.
Profitant de ce séjour parisien, Sa Béatitude a été à la rencontre des paroissiens de Saint-Julien-le-Pauvre qui sont venus nombreux saluer leur patriarche. Sa Béatitude en a profité pour donner samedi 20 mai le catéchisme aux enfants de la paroisse.
Le séjour parisien s’est achevé par deux grandes célébrations : samedi 20 mai, messe solennelle à Notre-Dame de Paris présidée par S.E. André Vingt-Trois, archevêque de Paris et dimanche 21 mai, Divine Liturgie à Saint-Julien-le Pauvre aux intentions de l’OEuvre d’Orient en présence d’une foule compacte de fidèles, des représentants du Ministère des Affaires étrangères et de l’Oeuvre d’Orient.
A l'issue de la Divine Liturgie, Sa Béatitude a béni l'icône de Saint Julien oeuvre d'un paroissien, Monsieur Simon Sautier.
Thursday 10 November 2005:
- Arrival around 12 noon and residence at Kairos Center (Mount Angelus Road, Roehampton, London SW15)
- Lunch with the Melkite clergy at the Kairos center at 1.30pm
- Lecture in London, jointly with the Mufti of Syria Sheikh Mohammad Hassoun at 6pm on “Muslims & Christians in the Middle East”at the House of Commons, the Boothroyd Room, Portcullis House. Organised by the Syrian-British Society.
- Dinner with the Syrian Ambassador and the British-Syrian Society at 8,30pm.
Friday 11 November 2005:
- Interview at the BBC Arabic Radio, Bush House, Strand, London WC2, at 11am.
- Lunch at Dr & Mrs Ramzi & Hayat Sanbar’s home, 3 Rutland Court, Rutland Gardens, London SW7, at 1.30pm.
- Lecture at the Brunei Theater, SOAS (University of London), Malet Street, London WC1, (near Russell Square), at 6pm, on “Christians of the Arab World”.
- Dinner at Mr & Mrs Philippe & Zahiya Jabre’s home, 21 Tregunter Road, London SW10, at 8pm.
Saturday 12 November 2005:
- Meeting at Mrs Valerie Chamberlain’s home, Linby, Lower Green, Towersey, OX9 3QP, at 10,30am.
- Lunch with the Parish Committee at Mr & Mrs Michel & Diane Klat’s home, The Old House, Milley Lane, Hare Hatch, Reading RG10 9TH, at 1pm.
- Dinner at Mr & Mrs Hani & Nadia Akkawi’s home, 41 Warwick Gardens, London W14, at 8pm.
Sunday 13 November 2005:
- St John Chrysostom feast: Liturgy at St Barnabas Church, Pimlico Road, London SW1, at 11,30am
- Lunch with Mr & Mrs Bassam & Mona Aboukhater and some parishioners at Al Fawwar Restaurant, 50 Baker Street, London W1, at 2pm
Monday 14 November 2005:
- Meeting with Cardinal Cormac Murphy-OÇonnor at the Archbishop’s House, Ambrosden Avenue, London SW1, at 8,30am.
- Discussion meeting at Heythrop College (Catholic Faculty of Theology in London), Kensington Square, London W8, at 11am.
- Lunch at the Lebanese Embassy, 21 Kensington Palace Gardens, London W8.
- Dinner with the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of St George, at Gladstone Library, 1 Whitehall Place, London SW1, at 7,30pm
Tuesday 15 November 2005:
-9am: departure to Heathrow Airport.
-12 noon departure to Beirut.
Ladies and Gentlemen,
First of all, I would like to thank you for inviting me to this great cultural forum and this prestigious university to talk about the Arab world. I take this invitation as an honour for myself and my Melkite people who first emerged in the Syrian East and have now spread all over the world. I would like to send greetings to them and to the Melkite community who have chosen to live in this historic city as a result of the wars which have ravaged Palestinian and Lebanese territories over the last fifty and more years.
The aim of this short speech about Christians of the Arab world is to highlight the main aspects of Arab Christianity, which began life in the first century AD and has remained in the Middle East to the present. This study will show how Christians have positively interacted with Arab Islamic society, in shaping one civilization, the Arab civilization. It will also show the key role of Christians in setting up Islamic civilization, especially in the time of the Abbasid Caliphate. A further aim of this publication is to inform Western European society about the reality of the Arab world’s Christians, who have been enormously neglected and virtually forgotten by modern Europe.
Christians of the Arab world means those who belong to the Eastern Churches: the Church of Antioch, the Church of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (which originated from the Church of Antioch), the Church of Jerusalem and the Coptic Church of Alexandria. These churches have been called collectively the Levantine Church. This Levantine Christianity, arabized in the course of history despite the existence of proper Arab Christianity before Islam, ought to be called the Arab Church and we aim to show its historical identity in this study. We shall briefly explore the intellectual influence of Levantine Christianity in the Arab world, the so-called Arab Christian heritage, due to its great importance in shaping Arab Christianity, or more precisely the Arab Church. However, it is impossible to avoid mention of some of the dark stains that spoiled the fraternal relationship between Christianity and Islam throughout history, but it is to be hoped that such mistakes will not recur. Anyway, no matter how black these episodes were, they were natural occurrences, as all people everywhere have experienced and some are still experiencing such episodes of injustice, hostility, killing and destruction. On many occasions, these troubles took place even among groups of the same people, of the same religion and in the same country.
At first, the Arab Christian heritage was localised within the Arabian Peninsula, then it moved to the Levant in the days of the Umayyads and to Iraq in the days of the Abbasids. It also flourished in Egypt under the Fatimids and Ayyubids. This Arab Christian heritage emerged again after a long period of decline in the modern Arab renaissance in the Lebanon, then spread all over the Arab East. In the Abbasid era, translators were mostly Christian Melkites, Jacobites (Syriac Orthodox Christians) and Nestorian Christians (Chaldeans and Assyrians). Thanks to them, Greek sciences were passed on to Arabs and then returned, also by Arabs to modern Europe through Andalusia in southern Spain.
The Christian scholars who excelled in various Islamic ages are too numerous to mention as there are hundreds of them, and they dealt with all fields of knowledge, especially medicine, chemistry, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy and theology. These scholars interacted very closely with their Muslim brothers. This is noticeable in the glories of Arab civilization which were developed with their efforts and those of their Muslim colleagues. Jews and Mandaeans also played a major role in creating the Arab intellectual renaissance. This fraternal intellectual cooperation among Christians, Jews, Muslims and Mandaeans had its golden age in the time of the Abbasid Caliphate. Though few in numbers during the first millennium, Muslim, Jewish and Mandaean scholars cannot be referred to in detail here, since this study is focused on the Arab world’s Christians who, without exaggeration, have constituted the cornerstone of Arab intellectual renaissance across the centuries.
Arab Christians before Islam
Christianity began to spread among Arabs from the first century AD, and more specifically about fifty days after the resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ, on the day of Pentecost, when Arabs witnessed the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the disciples of Christ and the start of the Christian mission in the world . It seems that Arab Christianity first spread in southern Jordan among Nabataeans, who offered shelter to Saint Paul after his conversion to Christ on the road from Jerusalem to Damascus. That is why the Arab Christian intellect is deeply rooted as it developed several centuries before the emergence of Islam. It is enough to mention here some aspects of such intellect in the Jahiliyah Age.
No researcher has any doubt about the great role which Arab Christians played in spreading Arabic script which originated from the Aramaic–Nabataean script. It is known that Arabic scripts from the north of the Arabian Peninsula which have come down to us were written in a Christian environment, and that they originated from the Nabataean script is commonly believed by most scholars. The oldest northern Arabic inscriptions found on the gates of churches date from 512 AD. Some of these are scripts in Zabad, to the southeast of Aleppo, written in three languages: Syriac, Greek, and Arabic. Other scripts are in Harran, inscribed in two languages: Greek and Arabic, in the year 586. It is scientifically established that Christian calligraphers in Hira are those who devised the Kufi script, which was used in writing the Qur’an.
Christianity spread among some Arab tribes and according to Ibn Qutaybah, “Christianity spread in the Rabeeah and Ghassan tribes and in parts of the Qodaah tribe.” The Bani Assad tribe were of high prestige in Makkah and the nearest to Christianity among all clans of the Quraish. According to Ya’qubi, “Most of them became Christians.” They considered as their “allies” some Ghassanid Christians who were lucky enough to inhabit the plain of Makkah, where honourable people lived and to reside next to the Ka’aba, the holiest place in Makkah. There were other Christian communities before Islam in Makkah, such as the Ethiopians, who entered Makkah in successive groups. One of the large Arab tribes that embraced Christianity was the Taghleb tribe, who inhabited the North East part of the Arabian Peninsula. The Taghleb’s neighbours, the Bakr tribe, also became Christian. The main tribe in Kindah embraced Christianity as well. The centre of Kindah, the so-called Ghamr Zi Kindah, was located a two-day walking distance from Makkah. Some historical references indicate that the majority of the Kalb tribe also embraced Christianity and Othman bin Affan married a Syriac Jacobite Christian woman called Naela who belonged to this tribe.
Nestorian Christianity also spread in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula and was structured into ecclesiastical dioceses and bishoprics. In Syriac, this region was known as Beit Qatraye, which means the house of Qatari people, which nowadays includes Bahrain, Qatar and Oman. To the south-western side of the Arabian Peninsula, the kingdom of Axum emerged in the first century, occupying Yemen for a short period towards the end of the third century. Axum’s king was a Coptic Monophysite Christian and the Bishop of Axum maintained links with the Coptic Church in Alexandria. To the south of the Arabian Peninsula was the Christian city of Najran, which was Monophysite, and an ally of Axum. Both Najran and Axum were allies of Byzantium. Najran maintained a continuous relationship with the Syriac Church in Iraq thanks to the commercial routes between the Arabian Peninsula and Iraq. Christian merchants took Christianity with them to the Yemen from around the middle of the second century. It seems also that the Nestorian Church was strong in several regions in Yemen, from the beginning of the fifth century. The Lakhmids were a great Arab Christian tribe who in the pre-Islamic period spread around the Euphrates River; their capital was Hira (near Kufa today), and they were allies of the Persians against the Byzantines. Christianity also spread among the Nabataean Arabs, particularly in Petra city, in south Jordan. The bishop of the kingdom of Palmyra in the Syrian desert, Paul Samusati, was an Arab who acted as the treasurer of Queen Zenobia.
This introduction to the existence of the Arab Christians in Jahiliyah, demonstrates how they participated in shaping Arab civilization right from its beginning, before Islam. It also confirms that the first Muslims knew Christianity very well from the time of the emergence of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula.
Arab Christianity at the Time of the Emergence of Islam
Islamic biographies tell the story of the priest Sa’ida, as Muhammad listened to him preaching in Oqaz Market. Another priest, Waraqah bin Nawfal, was acquainted with Muhammad for more than forty years, and looked after him and married him to Khadijah. There is a direct relation between Christians and Muhammad through his mother-in-law, Aisha’s mother Um Ruman who belonged to the Christian tribe Tay. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq married her to form an alliance and marriage relationship with her tribe. It is known that Othman bin Affan married his daughter Um Habibah to a young Christian. The marriage of Muhammad to the Coptic girl Maria had some impact in reinforcing relations between Muslims and Christians, according to parts of the Hadith, which recommend Christians to Muslims. Perhaps the worst clash with Christians in the days of Muhammad was his debate with the Christians of Najran who came to see him. This debate ended with him invoking Allah to curse the “liars.” Muhammad also had a good relationship with Ethiopian Christians who lived in Makkah. Among them were Bilal and his brother Ruwaiha; Bilal used to walk in front of the Prophet holding out his sword. They offered support to Muhammad when Muslims sought refuge with al-Najashi, the king of Ethiopia. These good relations between Muhammad and Christians paved the way for the following famous verses of the Qur’an to be revealed, “Strongest among men in enmity to the believers wilt thou find the Jews and pagans; and nearest among them in love to the believers wilt thou find those who say: We are Christians; because amongst these are priests and monks who are not arrogant; and when they listen to the revelation received by the Apostle, thou wilt see their eyes overflowing with tears, for they recognize the truth; they pray: Our Lord! We believe; write us down among the witnesses.”
There are seventy-eight verses in the Qur’an which mention Christians, including the verses which refer to the People of the Book. Besides, there are one hundred and twenty verses in the Qur’an that touch on the topic of Jesus (Issa) the son of Mary and Mary (Mariam) the daughter of Imran. These verses form about two percent of all the Qur’anic verses, bearing in mind that some of them repeat the above-mentioned verses about People of the Book (Ahlu al-Kitab). Islamic doctrinal schools elaborated on these verses, to develop a clear Islamic concept about Jesus Christ, his mother and Christians in the Qur’an. Muslims’ bestowal of honour on Mariam and on her son Issa, the Christ, is one of the best routes leading to mutual understanding, fraternity and peaceful co-existence between Christians and Muslims. Both Christians and Muslims believe in the prophets of the Bible and the apostles of Jesus Christ. More significantly, they both believe in the existence of one God (Allah al Wahid) who brings Muslims and Christians together in one religious gathering. They also believe in angels, life after death and the resurrection of the dead on the last, or judgment day. Both religions are associated together in some basic religious practices such as prayer, fasting and almsgiving, in addition to their conformity on most ethical and social matters.
The Umayyad Dynasty
When Arab Muslims conquered Damascus in 635 and Jerusalem in 638, they pledged to offer safety to Christian citizens and safeguard their money, property and churches. The Umayyad community then merged with the Christian and the two set up relations of amity and brotherhood between them. Caliph Muawiya married a Christian woman called Maysun al-Kalbieh who remained Christian throughout her life. She gave birth to his successor Caliph Yazeed. The Christian physician Hareth bin Kildah al-Thaqafi was Muawiya’s first physician. Sarjoun bin Mansour, the father of the famous theologian John of Damascus and educator of his brother, was Muawiya’s finance assistant. Christian scholars did not wait for the Abbasid dynasty to exercise their intellectual activity, but rather began with the Umayyads. One of them, called Istefan al-Qadim, translated some chemistry books for Khalid bin Yazeed bin Muawiya (died 704). Another eminent person in Muawiya’s time was Ibn Athal, about whom Ibn Abi Usaybaah says, “Ibn Athal was a first-class, talented Christian physician in Damascus. When Muawiya took power in Damascus, he chose him for himself and treated him with kindness. Muawiya used to listen to his advice on many occasions and conversed frequently with him day and night…” The physician, Abu al-Hakam al-Dimashqi, lived right from the time of Muawiya to that of Abdel Malek bin Marwan. His son, Isaac Ibn al-Hakam al-Dimashqi, widely known as Masih, succeeded him as a physician living in the days of Caliph Harun al-Rashid in the ninth century. Equally prominent as a physician was Tiyadok who died in 709. Towards the end of the Umayyad Dynasty, the monk Abu Jurayj became famous as a physician and wrote several books on medicine. Besides, there were many famous Christian poets in the Umayyad era, of whom doubtless the most distinguished was al-Akhtal al-Taghlibite.
Translation from Greek and Syriac into Arabic flourished, but only on an individual basis, which paved the way for proper translation work in the Abassid era. The monk Istefan was the first to do real translations of medicine, chemistry and astronomy books, in the hope that the deposed Caliph Khalid bin Yazeed bin Muawiya would find the philosophers’ stone which converts metals into gold. Such a skill is part of alchemy, which did not achieve any real progress under the Arabs. Thereafter, in the days of both Marawan bin al-Hakam and Omar bin Abdul Aziz, some medical books were translated, the most important of which being al-Kinash on medicine which was translated from Syriac by Masarjawayh. Then Aristotle’s letters to Alexander were translated by Salem, the clerk of the Christian Hisham. One of the first Iraqi Christians who wrote in Arabic in the seventh century was Habib Abu Ra’itah al-Tikriti. So it appears that there was an intimate relationship between Umayyad Muslims and Levantine Christians. Christians were not cut off from Muslims in isolated areas, but rather shared with them all aspects of life and built together a single civilization, the Arab civilization.
The Abbasid Dynasty
Iraqi Christians, who were mostly Nestorians, intermingled with their Arab Muslim brothers, competing in learning and mastery of the Arabic language. There emerged a group of writers who competed in composing stylistic Arabic texts and excelled in using innovative techniques. They also translated Greek books, already available in Aramaic-Syriac translation and studied and taught them at their schools. Monasteries were packed with valuable books translated from many languages. No book well-known at the time escaped being translated into Arabic and copied throughout the territories. People thus became interested in scientific knowledge; schools and intellectual forums were established and scientific institutes were overcrowded with students and teachers. Aramaic scholars, particularly those who were Nestorian-Assyrians, started teaching Arabic to people of their faith and many Christians became conversant with and proficient in Arabic literature. This impressive rise in knowledge led by Christians during the Abbasid era shows that Islamic scholars were receptive to the wisdom of ancient civilizations such as the Greek, Syriac, Persian, and Indian. They were by no means fanatical or bigoted, as in some cases yet to be discussed. Again, this trend indicates that Christians interacted quickly and unreservedly with Arab civilization and with the Islamic State. A significant feature of the Abbasid era was the brotherly cooperation between scholars and philosophers from all religious backgrounds, whether Muslim, Christian, Jewish or Mandaean.
The Arab Christian heritage also flourished in Andalusia during the Arab conquest. Arabic literature developed and spread among Andalusian Christians, some of whom were prominent, such as Jawad al-Tabib in the days of Prince Muhammad (852-886), Khalid bin Yazeed bin Ruman (died 932), Ibn Malukah al-Jarrah (died 902), Isaac al-Tabeeb, father of the Wazir (912-961), and his son Yahya bin Isaac, the Wazir of al-Nasser al-Rahman (912-961), Usbagh bin Abdullah bin Nabil and Walid bin Khaizaran, who were the rulers of Christians in Cordoba, Muawiya bin Lubb al-Kumes and many others. Even bishops used to write and translate into Arabic, such as Issa bin Mansur, Ubaidullah bin Kassem, Rabih bin Zayd and al-Hafes bin al-Bar al-Quthi (died 889).
The Eastern Church, or Church of the Levant, relied on clerks and physicians to be its competent representatives before (Muslim) authorities. The Church could play its role in developing this civilization whenever it had a patriarch or a bishop characterised by holiness or knowledge and Muslims used to value both. Then the Levantine Church would regain its high rank as a second unofficial religion in the Muslim state. Georgius bin Gibrail bin Bakhtiyashua, a Nestorian Christian, was al-Mansour’s greatly esteemed physician.
On the other hand, the conversion of Christians to Islam, partially attributable to their becoming eligible for exemption from tax, started from the early days of Islam and continued under the first Abbasid Caliph. Sawirus Ibn al-Muqaffa’ wrote, “Abdul Malek circulated to all people in his kingdom that he who becomes a Muslim and says the prayer of Islam will not have to pay tax. So due to the heavy burden of taxes, many rich and poor Christians renounced Christianity and became Muslims.” What Ibn al-Muqaffa’ said about Egypt was also applicable to the rest of kingdom.
Queen Zubaydah who was al-Mansour’s daughter, al-Rashid’s wife and al-Amin’s mother, deserves to be remembered as the most gracious of all great Abbasid ladies. Mari reported that Queen Zubaydah “used to show respect and hold in honour the Nestorian patriarch Timothy and to favour Christians and employ them.” She participated in making Palm Sunday decorations and crosses of gold and silver and gave Patriarch Timothy gold and silver vessels and luxurious clothing. She also supported Jibrail and Bishop Serjius in getting the Caliph’s signature to rebuild churches and monasteries which had been demolished by Hamdoun bin Ali’s men. The Melkite Syriac Bishop of Harran, Theodoros AbuQurrah (740-820) who was born and brought up in Edessa, left behind forty-three publications, which are some of the oldest Christian literary works in Arabic.
Al-Rashid’s days were the happiest for Christians of the Levantine Church . Dialogue, or more specifically debate, was something familiar and common. Radical Muslims used to prefer quiet discussions with Levantine Christians, because they were their compatriots, their allies in good times and bad and their real partners in developing Arab and Islamic civilization. Abu Ishaq al-Fazari al-Kufi, who died in 802, said in Ibn Battah al-Akbari’s book, al-Sharh wa al-Ibanah, “I prefer to sit with Christians in their church rather than to sit with a group of people arguing about their religion”. Also, al-Fadl bin Ayyad, who died in 803, said: “I prefer to eat the food of a Jew and a Christian than to eat the food of a (Muslim) heretic”.
Circumstances of the Abbasid Caliphate changed from the time of al-Moatasim, because Turks held positions of authority and were responsible for acts of extremism against Ahl al-Kitab and in particular Christians. Turks held office as chiefs of police and secret service in the Abbasid State and al-Moatasim kept them in his entourage. Turks gradually gained control of most influential positions in the Abbasid State, becoming its real rulers, while the caliph was merely the symbolic figurehead of the Islamic Empire. Their control was most powerful in the days of the Seljuks (1077-1307). It will become apparent that most Muslim rulers’ injustice to Christians was due to the power of the Turks in the Abbasid State.
In 838, one of al-Moatasim’s sons, Abi Dawoud, who was considered by Mikhail al-Siriani to be the enemy of Christians, “procured an order from his father prohibiting Christians from displaying their crosses outside churches, ringing their church bells, raising their voices in prayer or at funerals and displaying alcohol in any city or along the roadside. So Christians have remained since then at the mercy of chiefs who execute this order either strictly or leniently, depending on their own discretion or on what they earn.” This statement explains the earliest and most important reason for the conflict between Christians and Muslims, “These are matters which chiefs and rulers cannot tolerate, unless bribed by someone offering them a gift.” The rest of the statement explains the standard outcome, that the Christians give up their religion and embrace Islam to avoid injustice. When the situation calms down, they attempt to return to Christianity.
Caliph Abu al-Fadl Jaafar al-Mutawakkil (847-861)
Arab Muslims, who had rid themselves of Byzantine influence after leaving Damascus, encountered the Greeks again through the translations of Bayt al-Hikmah (the House of Wisdom), and became confused between the Persian and Turkish factions once these challenges of philosophy emerged. In al-Mutawakkil’s reign, Hunayn bin Ishaq (809-873), a Nestorian Christian, was considered the greatest intellectual of the ninth century and one of the most productive and brilliant men of all time. He played a major role in developing Arab civilization through his numerous translations from Syriac and Greek into Arabic, in various fields of knowledge in the days of Caliphs al-Mustaeen and al-Moatamed. Ishaq bin Hunayn, who died in 910, was the youngest son of Hunayn bin Ishaq and was one of the most famous physicians of the time. He was rated highly by the three Caliphs al-Mutawakkil, al-Moatamed and al-Moataded and particularly by Qassem bin Ubaidullah, the Vizier of al-Moataded. He equalled his father’s reputation in translating philosophy books from Greek into Arabic. Some translations of medical books have also been attributed to him.
During the reign of Caliph al-Mostaeen, some Christians were entrusted with high positions. Among them was Bushor bin Harun, the clerk of Muhammad Abdullah al-Tahiri, the then ruler of Khurasan, Taborstan and all the Levant. His brother was Jabr bin Harun, deputy ruler during the ruler’s campaign against Taborstan. They had a third brother called Ibrahim, a clerk. Unforgettable also was the well-known physician Jibrail bin Bakhtiyashu who died in 869.
Reign of Caliph al-Moataded (922-902)
Al-Moataded’s rule was characterised by tolerance for Christians, as he favoured them and preferred them to other non-Muslims. He used to address his clerk Abdullah bin Soliman saying, "If you find a Christian man suitable for your job, then employ him, because Christians are more trustworthy than Jews who are looking forward to restoring their kingdom and Christians are more trustworthy than Muslims who may use their status to capture your position and Christians are more trustworthy than the Magi because the Magi ruled this kingdom before." In short, Levantine Christians were ideal civil servants, as they neither sought to take power, nor felt any hidden hostility to the Caliph.
Christian physicians featured in al-Moataded’s entourage as well as in that of preceding Caliphs. The most famous physician was Ghalib, who had previously been physician to al-Mowaffaq. Arib bin Saad al-Qurtubi also mentioned the influence of Christians at that time, “To go up the social ladder, one has to claim links with Christians by saying ‘my family descended from yours and my ancestors are akin to yours’.”
Christians carried out translation work into Arabic for their own spiritual heritage, a fact which emphasizes, once again, the willingness of Christians of the Arab world to be integrated into wider Arab Islamic society.From the beginning of the eighth century, Arab Christians used their Arabic language in writing Christian theology. One of the earliest manuscripts extant, a Melkite script, goes back to 746 and another to 770. These were written in a language mostly dependent on the Bible and the Qur’an, and were largely free from Greek philosophical thought, which indicates their antiquity. Other small theological scripts from that period, or a little earlier have survived. Among the first Melkite writings dating from the middle of the eighth century, the most famous were the writings of Theodoros AbuQurrah. Another script in Arabic was written by the Nestorian Patriarch. It consists of a dialogue held in 781 with Caliph al-Mahdi. In the early ninth century, and particularly during the reign of Caliph al-Ma’moun, the number of Arab Christian dogmatic writings greatly increased. However, in Egypt, these theological works were not produced until around 940 by bishop Sawirus Ibn al-Muquffaa. These writings and others which were produced before the thirteenth century, reiterated that all Christians agree in their beliefs and disagree only in their expressions. Moreover, starting from the ninth century, Arab Christians began to change gradually the language of their liturgical prayers into Arabic, particularly among the Melkites and Maronites. The Gospels were translated by the end of the ninth century. Some translation efforts which laid down the main elements of Levantine theology and liturgy in Arabic will be mentioned later. Such translations played a major role in laying down new and significant foundations for the Arab Church.
Reign of Caliph al-Moqtader (908-932)
Caliph Abu al-Fadl Jaafar al-Moqtader Billah bin al-Moataded issued an order for the exclusion of Christians and Jews from the offices of the Caliphate, allowing them only employment in accountancy and medicine. He forced them to wear discriminative dress and other such signs on their clothing. The Fatimid Caliphate was established in 909 AD in Tunisia, during the reign of Caliph al-Moqtader. The Fatimids (or Fatimites) challenged the Abbassid Caliphate, and sought to compete with the Abbasids for Islamic leadership. The Fatimid Caliphate was the only large Shi’ite Caliphate in Islamic history. Their rule was characterized by tolerance and sympathy for the Dhimmis (non-Muslims), except during the reign of Caliph al-Hakim, which will be mentioned later on.
In this period, the famous Egyptian Christian physician Said bin Bitriq (877-940) wrote many books on medicine and Christian theology. Abu Bushor Matta bin Younis, known as Ibn Yunan, who died in 930, was a physician, philosopher and teacher of al-Farabi who translated several books from Greek into Syriac and Arabic, including some books of Aristotle.
Among the Christian scholars worthy of mention in this period of the Islamic Caliphate was a Syriac Jacobite called Yahya bin Uday al-Takriti, who died in 975. Ibn Abi Usaybaah says about him, “He led and mastered philosophical knowledge and taught Bushor Matta and Abu Nasr al-Farabi, as well as others. He was unique person in his era.” He translated around ten books from Aramaic-Syriac into Arabic, wrote more than fifty dissertations and produced many interpretations and translations. Also of the tenth century was Abu Bushor Severus Ibn al-Mukaffaa, the first Coptic writer to write in Arabic.
Reign of Caliph al-Qaa’em (1031-1075)
The year 1037 witnessed the reimposition of Omar’s Pact/Conditions. An official meeting was held in the presence of the two leaders of Ahl al-Dhimmah (non-Muslims), Patriarch Elia I and the Jewish community leader. Both leaders committed themselves to comply with the discriminatory measures placing their communities at a lower level than Muslims’, as well as refraining from building houses higher than those of Muslims and so forth. The rule about the construction of domes of churches in comparison with the minarets of mosques remained enforceable for long centuries. During the reign of al-Qaa’em, some Christians converted to Islam, to get rid of the restrictions on Dhimmis.
However, this period witnessed the emergence of some Christians in various fields of knowledge, such as Abu al-Hussein al-Basri, a philosopher and physician, who died in 1038, the prominent philosopher and physician Nazir Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and the Nestorian theologian Abu al-Faraj Abdullah bin al-Tayyib who died in 1043. “He was a great, prominent and knowledgeable scholar and an expert in philosophy, with extensive works on the subject.”
Throughout the history of the Islamic Caliphate and other eras Syriac and Nestorian Christians evidently cooperated with Muslims through thick and thin against their common enemy, the Byzantine Greek Christians. This Christian-Islamic alliance against the Byzantines played a major role in merging Aramaean (Syriac, Nestorian and Melkite) Christians with Arab Islamic civilization and ensuring their willing and sincere participation in developing it, using all the scientific, social and cultural resources at their disposal. However, the Muslim Caliph set the rule for establishing the hierarchical relationship of Christian sects in the Land of Islam. Thus, he granted the Nestorian Patriarch superiority over the Syriac and Melkite Patriarchs. In 1087, in this period of the Abbasid Caliphate, an anonymous Coptic writer wrote in Arabic Confession of the Fathers. The value of this book stems from the fact that it was one of the first attempts by a Christian to translate into Arabic writings of the Church Fathers.
Among the attempts to translate the Levantine Christian heritage into Arabic at this time were the theological books of Christian writers such as the Copt, Semaan bin Kalil bin Maqqarah in the twelfth century.
The Crusades
The Crusades began in the Levant (the East) during the rule of Caliph Abu Abbass Ahmed al-Mostazher. In 1099 AD, the Crusaders conquered Jerusalem, massacred or held in captivity its inhabitants and committed horrible atrocities, even in the sacred al-Aqsa Mosque. Then, Muslim clerics began to urge Muslims to fight. However, they never attacked the Christians who were living in the Land of Islam, but rather protected them. They considered the war on Jerusalem as an attack of the West on the East. However, Muslim kings and rulers were quite aware that Christians of the East had nothing to do with the Europeans (Crusaders), except for some individuals whose dealings were limited and insignificant. Therefore, there was no change in the principal attitude of religious jurisprudents at the time towards Christians as a result of the Crusades, as they were keen to draw a clear line between their attitudes towards internal (Oriental) Christians and external (Occidental) Christian Crusaders. Even Muwaffaq al-Din bin Quadamah, one of the most fanatical men (died in 1223) who supported fighting against the Europeans (Crusaders), issued a Fatwa for protecting the Dhimmis.
The Decline and Ascent of a Civilization
The real decline of Arab and Islamic civilizations started from around the middle of the twelfth century, despite the victories achieved by the Islamic military over the European Crusaders, since these did not lead to the regeneration of civilization, as had happened in the first phase of the Abbasid Dynasty. However, during the same century, Arab civilization remained prosperous in Andalusia, whence Arab and Islamic knowledge was overflowing into Christian Europe. The twelfth was really the best century in the history of philosophical thinking in Islamic Spain, thanks to the emergence of such prominent figures as Yahya Ibn Bajjah, known in Latin as Avenpace or Avempace (died 1138), and Muhammad Ibn Tufayl, whose philosophical thought was translated into Latin by Edward Pococke in 1671. Indisputably the greatest, however, was the distinguished Arab philosopher, Muhammad Ibn Rushd, known in Latin as Averroes (died 1198) whose writings played a great role in the revival of philosophical thinking in Europe. Lastly, one of the most prominent Arab scholars in Spain was the Sufi mystic, Muhammad Abu Bakr Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi (died 1340) whose writings influenced European scholars such as Duns Scotus, Roger Bacon and Raymond Lull.
The decline of Arab civilization in the East coincided with the rise of the European Renaissance in the thirteenth century, triggered by translations of Arab science and philosophy from Arabic into Latin. The first translator of a number of books on medicine was Constantine the African, who died in 1087. Robert of Chester translated al-Khawarizmi’s Algebra into Latin in 1145. However, the most famous and most active translator was Gerard of Cremona (died 1187) who translated numerous Arabic books of philosophy for writers such as al-Zahrawi, al-Razi, Ibn Sina and al-Farabi. By 1150, other translators had translated the works of the Arab-Spanish philosopher, Solomon Ben Gabirol, known as Avicebron or Avencebrol, who died in 1058. His writings had an impact on the medieval European scholastics. When the Spanish Christians occupied Toledo in 1085, this city became a focal point for translating books of science and philosophy from Arabic into Latin, as had happened before in Baghdad, when Levantine Christians translated Hellenistic literature from Greek into Arabic.
Among these translators was, for instance, Robert Scott (died 1236) who translated some of Ibn Rushd’s (Averroes’) books into Latin. In 1250, the first School of Oriental Studies in Europe was established in Toledo itself. Its main objective was the study of Arab-Islamic civilization with a view to convincing Muslims to convert to Christianity. Translation works expanded beyond Toledo and Arab knowledge was passed to many European cities such as Marseille, Toulouse and Montpellier, as well as the famous Monastery of Cluny, where the Abbot Peter the Venerable carried out, between 1141 and 1143, the first translation of the Qur’an into Latin. Besides, from the tenth century, Arab knowledge started to spread as far as the Lorraine area. Thus, cities like Liège in Belgium and Cologne in Germany became famous for it. So the brilliance of Arab civilization moved into the West and by the end of the thirteenth century, Arab science and philosophy made contact with Europe through Spain. For their part, Arabs and Muslims were then entering a long period of dormancy and cultural decline, which lasted until the arrival of the Europeans in the nineteenth century, prompting the modern Arab renaissance.
By the end of the Abbasid Caliphate in the second half of the thirteenth century, Christians had become a minority in the Land of Islam so that their rulers used to ignore them. Christians became in fact a group marginalised by the Islamic majority, striving for survival in their own homeland. This situation persisted until the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century, when the modern Arab renaissance took place.
Reign of the Mamluks
Mamluks took power in Egypt and the Levant in addition to controlling other countries. The Mamluks were, like the Seljuks, foreigners in the area. They may have been Muslim because they were brought up and lived in the region, but never became an integral part of the Arab social fabric, contrary to what Arabs of various groupings had achieved under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. Mamluks were spendthrift and their continuous need for money meant that they had to confiscate properties of very rich people, especially the merchants’. The proportions confiscated from Christian merchants were always higher than those of Muslims, because Christian merchants were deeply involved in commerce. Unfortunately, some Muslim rulers, before and during the Mamluk period, used to frighten Christians and humiliate them by demolishing churches in order to get money, something which Islam rejects absolutely. When Mamluks conquered parts of Armenia, they destroyed some of its big churches, contrary to what Islam allows. It was reported that the fall of Constantinople into the hands of Ottomans in 1453 delighted the Mamluk Sultan, who celebrated this event by confiscating properties of some Christians, imprisoning others and demolishing churches. Historians who describe this conquest confirm that Muslims demolished churches, which is unjustifiable by Islamic judicial principles.
The year 1300 witnessed the Dhimmis (non-Muslims) in a predicament in Egypt due to their extravagant lifestyle, food and clothing. The Sultan issued decrees to restrict their excesses in “riding fabulous horses and using mules garnished with expensive ornaments.”
Historians of that time omitted to mention that the number of Dhimmis who embraced Islam in the whole country was increasing regularly. It would probably mean that the majority of the population became Muslim by the eleventh or twelfth century, which also meant that Christians became by then a relative minority.
At the outset of the Mamluk period, in the middle of the thirteenth century, Arabic became the language of people living in the whole Fertile Crescent, except for some Syriac islands here and there, where Syriacs, Nestorians and Maronites lived.
The translations done by Christians before the Mamluk period had played a major role in educating Muslims in various fields of knowledge. No longer the preserve of Christians only, as was the case at the beginning of the Arab Islamic era, science and knowledge now became available to all. The scholars and companions of rulers’ palaces were by now in the majority Muslim, so the virtual Christian hegemony there disappeared at last. Although there was no great Christian contribution to intellectual civilization at the beginning of the Mamluk period, the physician, philosopher and mathematician, Abu al-Faraj Ibn al-Quff (1233-1286) mastered all fields of Arabic literature, and compiled several medical books.
The seat of the Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch was finally removed from Antioch and relocated to Damascus in the second half of the fourteenth century.
The Ottoman Dynasty
In the Ottoman period, in 1534 Palestinian Christians lost their Arab Patriarch, who had always been an Arab from the fourth century onwards, for a Greek one, as is still the case today. However, the Ottoman State used to treat Copts (Coptic Orthodox Christians) with equity and justice. Istanbul gave permission for the construction of the Cathedral of Yazbakiyah and the reconstruction of some ancient churches previously demolished. Coptic studies were re-established and brought back almost to their previous position. So Copts played a great role in managing the financial and administrative affairs of the Ottoman regime and some of them, such as the two Jawahri brothers, had the opportunity to gain great wealth. The first part of this period offered some stability to Christians, but this was blemished afterwards by several massacres. On this subject, Father Jean Corbon says, “Faithful believers sighed with relief under the Ottoman Regime (1516-1918), so that Christian emigration stopped and people were put in powerful administrative provinces. However, this could not prevent a number of local blunders which did not allow the construction of churches, but forced Christians to settle together in large communities in cities like Damascus, Aleppo and Mosul. They were also attracted to move into the mountains where they found good shelter, such as Mount Lebanon and Kurdistan. However, during the period of the decline and fall of the Ottoman Empire, misfortunes hit again in events such as the Armenian massacres after 1915, which cost the Christians one and half million (1,500,000) lives, and pushed the survivors to emigrate to North Syria and Lebanon. Another setback struck in the massacres of Syriac, Orthodox and Catholic Christians in East Anatolia, followed by a huge exodus towards Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Egypt. In the twentieth century, and more precisely in 1925 in Turkey, in 1933 in Iraq, and in 1946 in Iran, Christians of those churches paid a high price in massacres which were committed only to please the great powers struggling against one another to win Kurdish land and oil. Finally, the Palestinian issue emerged, and half the Palestinians were driven out of their country, including a large group of Christian Palestinians, who lost their legal existence among nations of the world."
Modern Arab Renaissance
The early features of the Modern Arab Renaissance started with the emergence of European Christian Missions during the nineteenth century, which came in succession into Lebanon, Syria and Palestine, to the extent that France alone had, at that time of the Ottoman Rule, about five hundred schools representing twenty sects and hosting about fifty thousand male and female students. In 1860, the English Syrian mission arrived and established schools for boys and girls in Beirut, Zahle, Baalbek, Ein Zhalta, Shamlan and Hasbayya. Before the end of that year, Prussian nuns, who specialized in orphanages and hospitals, established their centre in Saida (Sidon) and afterwards moved to Beirut. The Knights of St. John chose Beirut in which to set up their hospital, named after their patron saint. In 1860, the American Mission established the English School in Ebeih and other centres of learning in Suq al-Gharb, Saida (Sidon), Hasbayya and Tripoli in later years. In 1861, they also established the Evangelical School for Girls in Beirut. In addition to Latin, English and American cultures, the nineteenth century witnessed the emergence of Russian culture in Lebanon when, in 1887, the Lebanese Orthodox Emilie Sursok established a school in Beirut teaching Arabic, Russian and French. The activity of Russian schools extended to Shuweifat in 1894, to Douma in 1895, to Amyoun in 1897, and to Kosba, Zahle Baskinta, Hasbayya and Rashayya in 1900. For the Lebanese, these foreign schools constituted both incentives and role models. So they started to establish their national schools, both religious and secular. The denominational trend prevailed in the establishment of Lebanon’s Christian schools, but they have continued to admit students from various denominations and religions until today. These schools used to offer courses in Arabic, Syriac, Latin, Italian as well as all the subjects delivered at great European schools. Most of these schools are still flourishing today; they offer courses in French and English and apply European educational systems of tuition.
The founder of modern Egypt, Muhammad Ali, started to set up schools in his country not just for military sciences, but also for pharmacy, engineering and agriculture. Unfortunately very few of these educational institutions remained after his death, as his son Abbas (1848-1854) sacked all foreign advisers and stopped the foreign schools and most European-style institutions. Said (1845-1863) succeeded Abbas and applied a similar policy of resistance to Western methods. However, Ismail (1863-1879) had a special consideration for the West. The American Presbyterian mission had started its activity in 1856. During the rule of Ismail, the American College for Women started in 1861 as a primary school in Cairo and an American college was established in 1865 in Asyut that is still functioning today. The rule of Muhammad Ali Pasha encouraged the development of the Coptic Church while Patriarch Butros VII headed the Coptic Church from 1809 to 1852. During this period, the first bishop of Sudan was ordained, and a Coptic mission was sent to Ethiopia. This line of action continued with Patriarch Kyrillus IV who headed the Coptic Church from 1854 to 1861. He paid great attention to primary education and established the Coptic Orthodox College. The Khedive Ismail, the Egyptian Muslim ruler, granted this college fifteen hundred acres of land to provide for its expenses. Patriarch Kyrillus inaugurated the first college for girls in Egypt and completed the construction of Uzbakiah Cathedral.
From 1864, Protestant Churches took a great interest in the education of Egyptian Christians, so they established several schools in Egypt for the Egyptian Evangelical Church, the most famous of which are Rameses College and Asyut College. In 1920, American Protestant missionaries founded the American University of Cairo, which played a great role in educating a celebrated elite in twentieth century Egypt. After the British Army occupied Egypt in 1881, there was an increase in the number of students learning European languages and sciences, so missionaries increased their educational activities. The Jesuits established their school in Alexandria, the African or Comboni Fathers set up schools in Tanta and Zagazig, and the Christian Brothers (Frères) established schools in several places in Egypt.
Besides, the activities of the Arabic media flourished in Egypt. In 1828, the first Arabic newspaper was published in Cairo, namely Al-Waqaae al-Musriyah newspaper, which was founded by the ruler, Muhammad Ali. Then, in 1855 Rizqallah Hassoun, an Armenian, issued Miraat al-Ahwaal newspaper in Istanbul, but it lasted only for a short time. Afterwards many Arabic newspaper and magazines were published both in Beirut and Egypt, such that the Lebanese, mostly Christian Lebanese, were the founders and editors.
Another aspect of this modern Arab cultural movement is the spirit of Arab nationalism which started first as a purely intellectual movement focusing on the study of Arab language and intellectual heritage. During the Ottoman occupation, Muslim Arabs used to glorify the Sultan under the slogan of the unified Islamic Caliphate and go all together to the Sultan’s schools to learn Turkish in order to take up employment in government. In contrast to this, the schools and monasteries of Christian Arabs alone protected the Arabic language and secured the Arab heritage, stirring the national spirit of their people. The Arab political and literary renaissance was launched in the classrooms of these Christian schools, where both Muslim and Christian students learned together as a family the concept of Arab nationalism and liberation from Turkish colonialism and it is thanks to these schools that the country is enjoying independence nowadays.
The pioneers of Arab nationalism were mainly Syrian thinkers and Lebanese Christian intellectuals who were educated at national and foreign academic institutions. Lebanon became a focal point for Arab liberation from the Ottoman occupation, because Lebanon was open to the West more than any other Arab country, mainly because thousands of Lebanese people had emigrated to the new world in America and Europe and managed, through correspondence and frequent visits, to keep the light of freedom, independence and democracy shining continuously.
Christian-Muslim Dialogue
There is one last important issue to be discussed briefly: how far has Christian-Muslim dialogue proceeded? There is no need to mention directly those Muslim-Christian conferences designed to remove the barriers between the two biggest religions in human history so that people may live in a religious society that looks for peace and fraternity. Western Christians took the initiative to launch this dialogue in the sixties of the last century, with the Second Vatican Council a significant turning point in Muslim-Christian relations. The Pontifical Institute for Arab and Islamic Studies was established in 1964 in order to encourage Muslim-Christian dialogue. The Secretary for non-Christians has arranged various activities, meetings and forums over the years between both parties in order to remove obstacles between the two religions. There are tens of Muslim-Christian dialogue centres all around the world. However, Muslim-Christian dialogue began in the East from the time of the emergence of Islam and has continued there to the present. This study has presented some aspects of this dialogue which have been ignored by Westerners for centuries. The dialogue in the East has not just consisted of conferences and documents, but rather has been a dialogue of Muslim-Christian coexistence, as Muslim and Christian groups interacted with each other in one society, merging together in sorrow and in joy and building together a decent Islamic society and a reputable Arab civilization. Here, I would like leave the glories of Arab Christian-Muslim history, whose milestones have been highlighted in this brief study, to talk about the dialogue of the Muslim-Christian society as experienced currently by ordinary people living together in a small Lebanese village called Mlikh, which I know very well because it is my hometown, where I was born and brought up.
An Exemplary Model of a Christian-Muslim Dialogue
Christians and Muslims have been living together for hundreds of years as one family, in wall-to-wall adjacent houses and sharing food and drink with one another. What makes life pleasant is that they cooperate, as farmers and peasants, in planting and harvesting olives, walnuts and other crops and distribute them among themselves like brothers every year. When any woman, whether Muslim or Christian, gives birth to a baby, she immediately gives her baby to another mother, a friend of the other religion, to suckle him in order to make both babies, Muslim and Christian, grow up together as brothers, as the suckling bond at birth is a strong brotherly contract, according to prevalent Arab folk traditions. This may explain the frequent recurrence of words like “my brother” and “my sister” in Muslim-Christian villages. Our ceremonies are always common, in good times and bad, there is no feast confined only to Muslims or to Christians. In fact Greater Bairam and Lesser Bairam (Eids) which are important Islamic feasts, are considered feasts for Christians as well. The same thing happens when Muslims celebrate with their Christian brothers Good Friday and Easter. Our Christian shrines to the Virgin Mary and common Prophets are visited frequently by Muslims for prayers and intercessions.
I do not want elaborate too much about the story of Christian-Muslim brotherhood in the Arab East, but I am proud to say that our coexistence is a leaven for Christian-Muslim harmony all over the world. Hundreds of villages in the Lebanon and in many places all over the Arab world give this brotherly witness to the one family of God on earth. I hope that conferences of Christian-Muslim dialogue may pay special attention to these brotherly Muslim-Christian communities and learn from these people, who are not spoiled by the venality of politics, how to build bridges of grace and brotherhood between Muslims and Christians all over the world.
Conclusion: Church of Arabs and Muslims
1- Muslims and Christians are not on two clashing fronts. In fact, they are primarily one human family before God, the Lord of all creatures, who is not possessed by anyone, but to whom we all belong and shall return. Co-existence of Christians and Muslims originates from their appearance together to present themselves before God, who invites us to be united to serve human beings who are in anguish because of their numerous problems. Christians of the Arab world are most qualified and capable of answering the questions asked in a Christian-Muslim dialogue and to find a common religious and moral platform for both religions, because of their enormous contribution to the civilization of the Islamic world from its early days to present. Thus, they can play a major role in bridging the gap between Christians and Muslims of the whole world. Besides, they will be capable of converting the conflict between both religions into a civilized and positive co-operation, based on mutual respect. One of the main features of Christianity in the Arab world is that it forms a link for dialogue and understanding between two world communities in confrontation: Christianity and Islam. Their civilized contact with Muslims in the East, in addition to their religious partnership with Christians of the world, should entitle them absolutely to play this civilized role between Islam and Christianity.
2- On 24 August 1990, the Council of Catholic Patriarchs made an appeal to Christians of the Arab World, expressing deeply the feelings of all Christians sincere to their cultural identity in the Arab World. A part of the appeal states as follows, “Christians in the Arab East form an integral part of the cultural identity of Muslims and Muslims in the Arab World form an integral part of the cultural identity of Christians. Accordingly, we are committed to each other and such commitment will be accounted for, before God and history. Thus, we have to search continuously not only for coexistence, but also for creative and fruitful liaison which guarantees survival and safety for all believers in God and believers in our countries, away from instruments of rancour, extremism, stereotyping and rejection of the other. We are convinced that our genuine spiritual and religious values can help us overcome the problems that obstruct the progress of our coexistence” …. The appeal continues by saying: “Lo, Christians! Do not step aside or isolate yourselves, as if public affairs do not concern you, or they are not of your concern. In fact, you should be in the heart of society and be committed to offer every service you can. ….. You should not get used to the feeling of fear, isolation or alienation. Instead, you should be open to the whole Arab world to which you belong. Be brothers to every Arab brother, and participate generously and wholeheartedly in building the Arab world, especially during this period in which the future of the region will be decided.”
3- Various problems suffered by human beings today are not just Christian or Muslim problems, but rather human problems that affect all believers together in both religions. One of the most important human problems is social justice and the hegemony of the rich over the poor in the world, violating the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Besides, there is the problem of social ethics and the degradation of religious and moral values; and the secular understanding of gender and sexual life, which conflict with our religious ethics of marriage and procreation. The problem of atheism is getting worse nowadays and is destroying the basic tenets of all religions of the world. There are also the problems of technology which is causing pollution in the world, and threatening the health of mankind and destroying the environment. There are the problems of wars which are still destroying international peace and stability among nations and increasing terrorism all over the world as well.
4- Muslims should follow the approach of the West in dealing with issues regarding minorities, by offering them their full civil and religious rights so that all citizens of the same country are treated equally when making laws and when applying them. They should also protect Christian minorities who are living in countries with a Muslim majority, and do their best to reduce emigration of Christians to the West, a problem which has worsened in the last decades because of lack of balance in civil rights, and consequent on their deep concern about leading an unstable life, only because they are Christians. The Second Vatican Council is honestly calling upon Christians and Muslims in saying what follows, “Although there was in the past a lot of conflict and enmity between Christians and Muslims, our Council is urging them all to forget the past and do their best to attain understanding and agreement with each other and to work all together on protecting and improving social justice, spiritual values, peace and freedom, for the benefit of everyone”. Muslims all over the world should comply with Verse 256 (Surat al-Baqara) of the Qur’an, “Let there be no compulsion in religion," and offer the Muslim the right to choose his religion of his own volition without any persecution. Muslim countries should pass the legislation necessary for protecting the simplest and most sacred human rights, namely the freedom of an individual to choose his/her social and religious beliefs.
5- Arab culture flourished in the days of the Abbasids and in modern history, reaching its peak in the successful bond made by Levantine Christians between Western thought and Arab Islamic thought. Just as Baghdad used to be the centre of the Arab intellectual renaissance in the days of the Abbasids, Lebanon (and particularly Beirut) has become the centre of the modern Arab renaissance and in both cases, thanks to the openness to Western thought of Arab Christians who excelled in fertilizing their Arabic civilization with new ideas acceptable to their Muslim brothers, so that both communities developed together an international Arabic civilization, of whose numerous glories we are all proud. Thus, the progress of Arab Renaissance which was started together centuries ago, persists only through continuous frankness and sincerity between Christians and Muslims, in order to achieve integrated dedication and construction. Therefore, Christians should keep up their openness to the cultural wealth of contemporary civilizations in order to enhance Arabic thought with all modern constructive concepts and Muslims should secure the genuineness of Arab civilization by maintaining its cultural roots and feeding it with every modern thought so that it may develop constantly throughout its cultural progress. Through this constant cross-fertilization between Arabic thought and that of the world’s civilizations, Arab civilization will keep up its continuous success and growth and will attain new glories.
6- The Arabic language has unified Levantine Christians in one language and one civilization, after their dispersal in various civilizations and languages, namely Syriac-Aramaic, Coptic and Greek. Both Syriac and Arabic languages belong to the same Semitic family of languages. These two Semitic languages have united in a successful intellectual tie and offered humanity one international heritage of civilization, the Arab civilization, which played a major and vital role in the emergence of modern European civilization through Andalusia. Thus, most Christians have gradually arabized themselves in Egypt, Iraq and the Levant, and joined the original Arab Christians. The great Arab Christian heritage shows that Arab civilization is not only the Islamic civilization as many people think, especially in the West, but is rather Christian before being Islamic, having started before Islam in the pre-Islamic period and it is today a Christian-Muslim civilization because it has been developed by Arab Christians and Muslims alike. Hence, Levantine Christianity is, in all its denominations, the Church of the Arabs and its great intellectual and spiritual achievements throughout history entitle it to be not only the Church of the Arabs, but also the “Church of Muslims” which sheds the light of Jesus Christ, the light of unity of all nations and the light of freedom and salvation on all those in thrall to the injustice of this mortal world. Our Christian spiritual identity declares proudly that we are Arab Christians, in spite of our historical connections with the Aramaic, Coptic and Canaanite civilizations. Just as the ancient civilizations that we belonged to had been the outcome of civilizations that preceded them, our Arab civilization has been the outcome of our interaction with diverse civilizations throughout history. Our Levantine Church is today Arabic in as much as it was Aramaic, Coptic and Greek. We are proud that our Arab Christian identity is currently a mixture of various civilizations that still constitute the solid roots of our Arab civilization’s character. This inclusiveness of modern Arabic thought is the responsibility primarily of Christians, because the said Church of the Arabs is not possessed by a particular human race, is not restricted within a narrow historical Christian concept and is not a rejection of preceding civilizations, including the Syriac, Coptic and Greek Christian civilizations, but is in fact the Church of Arab Christians of all denominations, chosen by God to be the remaining remainders of the faithful people, who have not prostrated to the idols of racism, stereotyping and sectarian hatred, nor to the idols of failure, frustration and fear which are nowadays widespread among Arab Christians, but prostrate only to God, Lord of all Creatures, whom they see in every human being, especially in the Arab or Muslim. These remaining remainders of faithful Christians declare that their God is the God of the living who are praising the Lord day and night and rejoicing in Him because He is eternal life, not the God of the dead, who live in the shadows of their rancour, frustration and rejection of their Arab and Muslim society and who spread in the world only their negative, destructive ideas, such Christians being totally far from the authentic message preached by Jesus Christ.
7- The time has come to put an end to the “minority complex” which only intensifies fear and escapism of Arab Christians from the Muslim majority in the Arab world. Christians of the Arab world are not preoccupied by the “vanishing minority complex” described by many Western writers, especially journalists. We are proud to be a minority; because minority is the true depiction of the flock of Jesus Christ who says, “Fear not, little flock, for it is your Father’s good pleasure to give you the kingdom.” We are pleased that the Lord has destined us to be a minority in order to complete his will in us and to witness to his gospel in our Arab world, so that we will be the yeast of love and peace in the dough of the Muslim East. It is enough for us that the whole dough becomes fermented and that we live all together in the love of God and the love of one another. Truly we fear to be the large-numbered flock whose spiritual commitment is hardly ever plain and honest, because they are often engaged in spreading the sovereign power of the material world on earth and accordingly devoting themselves to worshipping the idols of money and authority in this mortal world. On the contrary, our Arab history shows that when Muslims were a minority in the days of the Umayyads and Abbasids, they used to interact and integrate with the Christian majority, thus achieving the glories of Arab civilization. When Arab Muslims became an absolute majority and Christians became a minority in the days of the Ottomans, the modern Arab renaissance was launched by the small Christian minority in Lebanon to the whole Arab nation, ensuring its recovery after a long decline. In our Arab history, the minority feeling has always been a source of endless dynamism and energy. Those who trade in this word, “minority,” are unaware of history, because only the minority established the comprehensiveness of Muslim civilization. Only the minority restored the glories of Levantine Christianity by rescuing Arabic thought from extinction due to intellectual decline in the days of the Mamluks and the Turks. In short, the power of people does not depend on their numbers but on the degree of development of their civilization. History confirms beyond any doubt that small communities, devoted to their beliefs, have been able to change the course of human history, just like water springing from the depth of the earth to irrigate huge plains, or like a small lamp illuminating a large place.
8- The heart of Christianity is God’s love, which drives it to love all human beings. Its lamp is science which carries the light of knowledge, the root of every civilization and culture in humanity. This is the characteristic feature of Levantine Christians of the Arab world throughout their long history, conveying love to their Arab brothers and spreading the light of knowledge in the life of Arabs and Muslims. Hence, we can see Christians of the Arab world as the sole pioneers of Arab civilization through their constant openness to all fields of science in fostering knowledge and understanding in the thinking of Arabs, both Christians and Muslims. Levantine Christians have sincerely and truthfully fulfilled this mission of love and knowledge, and consequently have gained the confidence of Muslim rulers who realised that their Christians were the best assistants in promoting Arab and Islamic civilizations. This is the real force behind the success of Levantine Christians in their Arab world. If Christianity in the Arab world deviates from its stated historical identity, it will lose the value of its presence in the East. However, Levantine Christianity continues to exist by the power of its eternal mission which is still interacting and integrating with its Arab and Muslim society until the return of Jesus Christ at the end of the world, when it will deliver back the good deposit that it was entrusted with, from the start of its mission on Earth, almost two thousand years ago.
Written by Rev. Dr. Shafiq AbouZayd
November 2005
Linguistic editor V.Chamberlain
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Below is an extract of the speech given by
His Beatitude Gregorios III Laham B.S.,
Greek Melkite Catholic Patriarch of Antioch and all the East of Alexandria and Jerusalem.
"In the present day, after September 11, 2001, with the war against Iraq, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the increase in Islamic fundamentalism and the spread of the phenomenon of terrorism, it is very important to remind Arab Christians about their role as Church 'of the Arabs,' in the context of Islam to which they are historically bound ('Church of Islam'). Such a reminder would help to encourage Christians in the Arab world and in Islamic countries, and would be very favorably received in the world and in those countries. ... On the subject of the 'Eucharist and peace,' it would be appropriate to mention Jerusalem and Palestine, spiritual home of all Christians, and to say a word for peace in the Holy City and in the Holy Land. This is the key to peace in the Near East and in the whole world and - for us Christians of the Arab world - it is of the greatest importance for maintaining a Christian presence there."
Introduction
Jerusalem is the mother of all churches: thus sang St. John Damascene (8th. century) monk at St. Saba’s Lavra, near Jerusalem, 'Rejoice, O Jerusalem, mother of churches, dwelling place of God, because you have received first the remission of sins, through the resurrection.'
Jerusalem is the capital of our faith; the source of all liturgy and celebration; the guarantor of the integrity of our faith, the unity of the Christian cult and of their agreement with the Christian mystery and with the divine economy. Jerusalem is the guarantor of the unity of humanity; all people shall call Jerusalem ‘mother’ (Ps. 87:5, 6). Pope John Paul II said in his encyclical Redemptoris Mater, ‘Palestine is the spiritual homeland of all Christians, because she is the homeland of Jesus and Mary.’
I have experienced these spiritual, liturgical and ecclesiological riches of Jerusalem and in Jerusalem, where I have been able to participate in so many liturgical services according to the rites of different churches, I have observed and analysed much and been able to note how many common elements there are between the rites. Once again the words of Blessed Pope John XXIII are true, ‘What unites us is much more than what separates us.’ I have lived an intense spiritual unity with all the heads of Churches, especially through the liturgy. To live the liturgy of others, with others, is already a very intense movement towards unity: to appreciate the rite of another, to taste and discover the affinities and resemblances between the rites, is deeply appreciated and most enriching. Hearts are always won through the liturgy. When understanding joins with the emotions, in the heart, there the bonds are tightly forged. This is the experience I had during my time in Jerusalem!
The liturgy is not the only basis of Christian unity, however; the liturgy is itself is one of its sources (not withstanding the diversity of languages, traditions, expressions, of the spiritual and literary genius of each liturgy or rite) because the object of the liturgy, its substance and content is the mystery of Christ, as St. Paul says, in ‘its breadth and length and depth and height’ (Eph. 3:18); in all its dimensions, aspects, epiphanies and transfigurations, in all its extent and horizons. This is what the Fathers of the Church have so well expressed by the typically Eastern phrase ‘economy of salvation.’
In this Christological, cosmic and ecumenical sense, the liturgy is at the same time one and unifying and the factor of unity; the liturgy is the fabric of unity, in all its threads and colours. The liturgy is the most eloquent expression of the unity of the Church and of Christians. This is the meaning of the Latin adage, ‘Lex orandi, lex credendi.’ Our Fathers, especially the Eastern Fathers, made a unity of the Word of God in the Old and New Testaments, through the liturgy, the offices and the hymns. This remark is very important in the present situation of hypersensibility on the subject of anti-semitism, because some people are keen to discover evidence of it in the New Testament and in works of the Church Fathers. The liturgy is the gateway to this unity; it carries the interior harmony of Christian prayer. The Greek biblical language is a striking example of this Christian unity, and especially so is the Antiochian unity of the Patriarchate of Antioch, which is the goal of this study.
We Melkite Greek Catholics have a profound sense of the search for unity and the preservation of this unity, especially with our Greek Orthodox brothers and sisters. We have edited all our liturgical books according to a new method, grouping together in a single book, for a period of three or four months, the six books used throughout the whole year. Alongside our liturgical and pastoral concerns, our concern for unity with the Orthodox Church remains alive. We do everything we can to conserve, through the liturgy, the strongest bond of unity with our Orthodox brothers and sisters. Thus, in the latest official edition of the Divine Liturgy, we preserve the Greek language side by side with the Arabic. In the same way, we have conserved the official Typikon while giving a broad range of liturgical options, with a view to liturgical animation.
Therefore, in spite of our communion with Rome, our fidelity to Orthodox liturgy, which is our own, is the expression of our fidelity to unity with our sister Orthodox Church. In short, we have a concern for preserving the sense of the Orthodox liturgy, the yphos (fabric) of the Orthodox liturgy.
The effect is truly excellent. We feel that there is osmosis: our Melkite liturgical reforms are passing slowly into Orthodox circles. Once again the liturgy unites us. In the same way we keep an eye on all liturgical movement in Orthodoxy. This lecture represents a thesis of my liturgical, historical, ecumenical (in the current meaning of the word), ecclesiological and above all Antiochian vision. This lecture springs from my spiritual, liturgical, and yet again, my ecumenical experience. I hope that this conference may lay the foundation of a more profound work for Antiochian unity and for the unity of Christians in the Middle East.
The Greek Antiochian Liturgy and the Greek Language
The Greek language was at one time a world language, the language of the Oikumene, the ecumenical language in the true sense of the word: that is to say, the language of the civilised, inhabited world in antiquity. The ancient civilised world was the Greek or Hellenic world. Rome had triumphed over the Greeks, but had adopted the language of the vanquished and this despite the world expansion of the Roman Empire. The Roman world was much later divided by Emperor Theodosius I ‘the Great’ into the Eastern and Western Empires. This is why I am still called today in Arabic 'Roum' Melkite Catholic and in the languages of Europe, ‘Greek' Catholic.
It is very well known that Greek was the liturgical language of the primitive church, even in Rome, capital of the Roman world and of the Roman Empire, whence we derive the term Roman Church. The Greek language remained the language of the Roman Church for two centuries. Little by little Latin was introduced into Rome and its neighbouring region, Latium. St. Polycarp of Smyrna, visiting Rome in 156, surely concelebrated the liturgy with Pope Anicetus in Greek.
We know too that the Greek language remained in use in the Latin or Roman rite, in the Kyrie Eleison, Christe Eleison, and the Agios O Theos and the Reproaches of Good Friday: moreover, there is an ancient and venerable tradition which imposes on the Roman ritual of the Papal Pontifical Mass, that the epistle and Gospel be proclaimed in Latin and Greek. I used to do this during my years of study in Rome (1958-1961). We know too that there are still troparia common to Latin and Greek in the Greek and Roman liturgy. Thus the Sub tuum praesidium is used in the Latin, Greek and Syriac traditions. Or again, for the Feast of the Nativity of the Virgin (8 September) and the Hypapante (2 February), there are common troparia.
The Cycle of Greek Civilisation
To illustrate my point, I would like to dwell a little on a theme which I call: the cultural cycle of the Greek Mediterranean. This is a world axis which profoundly marked human history, its civilisation and its ancient and modern culture and will always mark it in spite of the influence of globalisation in our time. The cycle has as its point of departure, Greece, with the Greeks. This Greek cycle embraces all aspects of Hellenic culture and civilisation, such as philosophy, medicine, architecture, algebra, astronomy, theology and sophiology.
The Greek language was soon to submerge the entire Mediterranean basin, from east to west, from north to south, both during the centuries before and after the first Christian era. The celebrated city of Alexandria, constructed by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C., is an eloquent witness. It became, along with Athens, the capital of Hellenic and Roman culture.
We can see the importance of the Greek language in the famous translation of the Bible from Hebrew into Greek, in the third century B.C., called the Septuagint and reputedly realised by seventy Jewish scholars, well versed in Hebrew and Greek. This was necessary since the Jews, dispersed in the countries of the Mediterranean basin and in all the Roman Empire as far as the Yemen and the Persian Gulf, no longer knew much Hebrew and apparently spoke in Greek. Thus the Greek language became the language of culture, eloquence, rhetoric, law, philosophy, history, science, for scholars and for city dwellers, while the inhabitants of the villages spoke a Semitic language: Aramaic, eastern or western Syriac. Jesus himself did not speak Greek; he preached the gospel in Aramaic. Amongst the apostles, not one spoke either Syriac or Greek. The Gospels however were written in Aramaic and Greek. On the cross, the writing placed above the head of Jesus was in Greek, Latin and Hebrew.
In fact throughout the whole Church up to the seventh century, in all regions of the East, there was spoken the kind of Greek language that was studied and practised by the majority of fathers, scholars and doctors of the early Church. When the Roman Empire became Christian under Constantine, the church adopted the Greek language; councils were held in Greek and Greek became the language of theology, liturgy and ritual. This also applied to the church fathers and scholars of antiquity, whether called Greek or Syrian, who lived in Asia Minor (today called Turkey), or in Syria and Palestine, that is to say, the territories of the ancient Diocese of the East.
A profound knowledge of the Greek language permitted eastern scholars, such as the Fathers of the Church, to be able to translate into Arabic the Greek intellectual heritage after the Arab conquest. This massive task of translation took off in an extraordinary way in the cities of Antioch, Damascus and Baghdad. It may be affirmed without fear of exaggeration, that Arabic culture and civilisation owe much, if not all, to Christianity and Christian writers, translating from Greek and Syriac. One could argue that there is a Christian influence on Islamic civilisation; in the same way that Christian civilisation in the East has been influenced by Islam.
Let us return to the concept of a ring or circle of Greek or Hellenic civilisation which encircles the Mediterranean basin and even beyond. Effectively the Muslim Arabs who conquered Spain, via Egypt and North Africa, carried with them Greek culture in the Arab language. Through Arab contacts with Europeans of the Middle Ages, and through the Arabic language, the West discovered Greek Hellenic culture and civilisation. After that the Latin culture of the middle ages began to develop, drawing on Greek culture for its literature, philosophy and theology.
This cultural circuit is arguably the greatest and richest in human history: it is a cultural axis of pagan-Greek-Christian-Arab-Muslim; western-eastern; Middle Eastern-European! Subsequently, the circle widened into the whole of Europe, the Slav world and the entire ancient world. The whole world is truly indebted to Greek culture and language.
Liturgical literary genres
The number of Eastern liturgies has always been an enigma for me. How many times have I asked myself the question: why all these eastern rites when the faith is one, with its geographical starting point, Jerusalem, its capital?
However I know these rites closely and in depth, because of my long stay in Jerusalem as Patriarchal Vicar (1974-2000). During that time I discovered numerous, profound affinities between a great number of liturgical texts. I also discovered that what distinguishes them is the language and other characteristics which I shall call ‘cultural’ and which form a kind of ‘literary genre’. It is because of this that I like to apply to the liturgy the theory of ‘literary genres’ used and applied in the study of sacred scripture. Effectively, these rites express Christian dogma which is one in substance, spread across their literary, linguistic and cultural genres.
The application of this literary genre theory to the liturgy is of major importance for reconnecting the diverse rites of East and West, and discovering that which unites and distinguishes them. One can apply in this regard the affirmation (cited above) of Blessed Pope John XXIII on the subject of the Christian churches, ‘What unites us is much more than what separates us.’ The same applies very well to the different rites and liturgies. They are differentiated in literary art, cultural genius, civilising aspects, which are different from one rite to another. On the other hand, they are in accord and harmony with their principal aspects, in number and in kind.
This will help us in our study of the Antiochian liturgy in its numerous modes across history. Although the uninformed observer believes that the liturgies are from different families or denominations, so to speak, in fact, they are all from the same source, and are one in their substance and across their ‘transfigurations’ or diverse ‘epiphanies.’
In order to demonstrate the unity of the Antiochian Rite, (Greek, Syrian, Maronite) and the profound resemblances across all the Eastern rites, I wish to refer to the book of Fr. Alfonse Raes S.J. entitled ‘Introductio ad Liturgiam Orientalem.’ (He was my professor of liturgy at the Pontifical Oriental Institute.)
In his book, Fr. Raes established synoptic tables for different parts of the eastern sacraments and liturgies. These tables demonstrate the profound kinship between the rites, not to say their unity. This study provides evidence for our theory about the literary genres of liturgies. All our liturgies are indeed cultural ‘epiphanies’ of the same Christian dogma: they proceed directly or indirectly, in one manner or another, from one unique liturgical source, Jerusalem. All express in different ways (chants, melodies, poems, icons, symbols, ceremonies, rites, processions, gestures, liturgical instruments and ornaments..) that which St. Paul calls the ‘great mystery of faith’ and which the Fathers, especially the Greek Fathers, have put so well in their expression dear to the Eastern Christian, ‘the divine economy of salvation.’
This appears especially in the anaphora of the Divine Liturgy, which is the great prayer of thanksgiving and which is the central part of the Divine Liturgy or Mass. One finds there very clear common elements, especially in the anamnesis and epiclesis. This is obvious in the different eastern anaphora: they are so similar, not to say ‘one’ and share a basic content and central core founded on the Trinitarian economy of salvation.
There is no time to discuss in detail other common elements, such as the Psalms, (which are the same, of course) which are very similar in their selection and deployment among the different Eastern feasts and offices, being distributed among the events of salvation in the holy places of Jerusalem and the rest of the Holy Land. Then there are the saints common to all churches and rites and in the same manner, the liturgical cycle; Easter, all the Feasts of the Lord Jesus and of Mary (Our Lady); and of course the sacraments too: Fr. Raes gives the synoptic tables of the sacraments in all the eastern rites in his work already cited.
Jerusalem: The Origin
All rites were born and developed in the Middle East. They are eastern constructs and not imports. The East (from Jerusalem) is the point of departure for all the rites, including the Roman and other Latin rites. This is what the famous theologian and hymn writer St. John Damascene sang, ‘Rejoice, Zion, Jerusalem, Holy One, mother of churches, dwelling-place of God, because you have received first the remission of sins, through the resurrection.’ And the Psalmist says, “And of Zion it shall be said, ‘This and that man was born in her’ and ‘all my springs are in thee’” (Ps.87:5, 7).
One knows very well that the Spanish pilgrim Egeria (or Eheria) and other western pilgrims transported to the West the prayers and customs, processions and rites which they had experienced around the holy places, especially in Bethlehem and Jerusalem. Thus Jerusalem is truly not only the mother of churches, but also the mother of all rites. We can justifiably call all the rites ‘Hierosolymitan,’ because the liturgy of the mass and all the prayers are the celebration of the mystery of Christ, the mystery of the divine economy of salvation, accomplished in Jerusalem.
It is interesting to raise the point that the majority of hymns are the work of hymnographers, of saints, holy Melkite monks, in the Orthodox and Catholic meaning both Chalcedonian and Syrian, of the eighth and ninth centuries. The majority of them were monks of the monastery of St. Saba in Palestine, the most renowned being St. John Damascene (+749), Andrew of Crete (+767), Cosmas Damascene the Hymn Writer (+749), Joseph the Hymn Writer (+ 883), Theophanos the Hymnographer of Jordan (+845), and their master Romanos the Melode, son of Homs, deacon and cantor at Beirut, Tyre, Baalbek.
Antioch: One Church in two languages, Greek and Syriac
Antioch is the first heir of the Jerusalem tradition. The second is Alexandria, the third Asia Minor with Constantinople: hence the importance of the study of the history of Antioch in the first millennium. The geographical, historical, theological, national, ethnic and linguistic structures of this church are the reason and cause of the diversity of these rites. From a misunderstanding of this reality, there is born a feeling of confusion at the diversity of rites and it is believed that the rites are different and strangers one to another. We lose the universal character of Antioch! In fact, it is in this ancient Eastern Diocese of the Roman Empire, in Syria of Greek tradition, that we find the most beautiful marriage between Roman and Greek cultures. We may say without boasting that the Melkite tradition, both Orthodox and Catholic, is the most successful example of such a marriage in the history of the whole Roman Empire and in the civilization of the Middle East. It is through this universal character that we can discover the unity between the Antiochian rites and their Antiochian origins and in the same way discover the unity of the Church of Antioch itself.
Indeed, we, the Greek Catholics and Greek Orthodox of Antioch (and of Jerusalem and Alexandria) are called by two names: Greeks in the West, and Roum or Roman in Arabic and in Muslim and Arab literature up to the present! Thus we carry the double character of Roman and Greek. Through our double name, we discover the history and civilization of the Middle East, which formed part of the immense Roman Empire, Western and Eastern, including Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, as far as the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia up to its frontier with Persia (Iran) and this is where Greek language and culture reigned, side by side with Syriac. We are indeed both Greek and Roman!
We rediscover this historical, cultural and geographic reality in the titles of the diptychs of the Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch, Jerusalem and of Alexandria. These are to be found all together in the Phymie (praise) of the Melkite Greek Catholic Patriarch who carries the triple title of Antioch, Alexandria and Jerusalem and where we read, ‘the Patriarch (so and so), our Lord and Pastor(shepherd) Patriarch of the Great Cities of Antioch, Alexandria and Jerusalem, of Cilicia, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Georgia, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Libya, Pentapolis, Ethiopia, Egypt, Father of Fathers, chief of chiefs, shepherd of shepherds, the thirteenth apostle, may he live many years! Eis polla eti...’ These titles show the vastness of the territory of the patriarchates of Antioch and of Alexandria and of Jerusalem, where the eastern rites of which we speak are to be found. One discovers through this the geographical, cultural, ecclesiastical, spiritual, monastic, theological and liturgical bonds which unite them.
The expansion of the Greek language in all these regions created between them common denominators and a very rich and diverse facility for theological, intellectual and ecclesial osmosis. It is this richness which characterises Antioch from the point of view of historical culture and civilization.
At Constantinople there is a certain monolithism, or monism, because one finds there a sole culture, a sole language, a sole people. The same is true of Alexandria, where the Greek language reigned supreme in its Coptic form (the characters of the Coptic alphabet are Greek). Perhaps this is one of the reasons why so many Coptic prayers are found in the Greek rite. We must not forget though, that nine Syrian monks preached the gospel in Ethiopia, of whom St. Frumentios of Tyre was the first bishop of Aksum (Eritrea).
Antioch is very different: there one finds Greek language and culture developed to its highest level. At the same time, the Syrian, and even the Aramean and Arab language and civilization, were splendidly and richly developed. Antioch is truly the homeland of pluralism in all its aspects; ecclesiastical, civil and cultural. It should be noted that Syriac is very different from Greek and although these two languages developed harmoniously, they remained independent in all their aspects.
This is a single and unique fact in the history of cultures and civilizations: this harmonious diversity remains in place up to our time. Indeed Syrians remain faithful to Syriac in spite of the fact that they use Arabic in their liturgy; the same is true of the Maronites. In the same way, we, the Greeks, are called Greeks in spite of the fact that we have translated all our liturgy and offices into Arabic. Since the 11th. century we have been praying in Arabic, while still using Greek to this day.
This means that the Syrian Fathers were Antiochian Syrians, in spite of the fact that they wrote in Greek and most likely did not celebrate in Syriac. In the same way the Greek Fathers were Syrian and Antiochian in spite of the fact that they wrote in Greek and did not understand Syriac. This was because the Greek language was common to all cities, while the rural population spoke Syriac or Aramaic, but the inhabitants of the cities and villages came from the same ethnic stock.
Saint John Chrysostom, the Antiochian genius (before he became Archbishop of Constantinople), was Syrian Antiochian and did not know Syriac. He used to preach in the cathedral of Antioch. During the great feasts there came from the town and villages the faithful, of whom one group spoke Greek (the town) and the other group Syriac (the villages). However, all belonged to the same diocese and Church. On the occasion of a great feast, he (St. John) had around him a large congregation, but had to apologise for not preaching in Syriac, the language of the greater part of the faithful attending the liturgy. That is to say, the two languages of Greek and Syriac were the languages of the faithful of the same diocese of the Church of Antioch; the same people had two languages. One can draw an initial conclusion from this: we, called Greeks and Syrians, that is to say the Greek Orthodox, the Greek Catholics, the Syrian Orthodox, the Syrian Catholics and the Maronites are a single people, even if, nowadays, we belong to different rites.
We all know that St. John Chrysostom was the author (in a general sense) of the liturgy attributed to him, which he took with him to Constantinople and which is now celebrated in different forms in the Syrian, Armenian and Coptic rites. The liturgy gained several new, but rather minor, elements in Constantinople: the proskomedia; the procession of gifts and the chant ‘O only begotten son’; otherwise it is an Antiochian liturgy.
Similar to the instance of St. John Chrysostom is that of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, when he was given the task of preparing catechumens: for them, he preached his famous Catecheses, during Lent and the Paschal season of 348, in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre, (all except the last five, which he gave in the rotunda of the Resurrection) standing on the hill of Golgotha, on top of the stone of Unction, where the catechumens had gathered, of whom one part spoke Greek and the other Syriac. However, St. Cyril only knew Greek and had recourse to a Syriac interpreter. All the catechumens were members of the same Church of Jerusalem. Much later St. Cyril became bishop of Jerusalem. We must not forget that the monks of St. Saba belonged to different countries and spoke different languages, but belonged to the same Church and gathered together to celebrate the liturgy in the Greek language. Similarly, St. Jerome reports that at the funeral of Saint Paola psalms were sung in Greek, Latin and Syriac. A little-known sermon of St. Gregory of Nyssa shows that the province of Pontus (present day northern Turkey) and Cappadocia were following the Syriac rite at the end of the fourth century. The osmosis effective in Antioch and at Jerusalem was also effective in the region of Constantinople.
When picturing Antiochian culture, it is impossible to exclude other languages: Syriac, Greek and Arabic are endemic in the geographical area with which we are concerned here. So, one of those icons of the kind that best demonstrates the universality of that same Syrian-Antiochian culture across time and space, is the double-sided icon of Kaftoun. It has on the back a magnificent depiction of the baptism of Christ, with inscriptions in three languages, Syriac, Greek and Arabic.
Now a word on the subject of the term Byzantium: this town was named after its founder Byzas, in 658BC. It was later called Constantinople, the name of its founder the Emperor Constantine, who inaugurated it in 330, when the name Byzantium disappeared. In spite of this, the name (Byzantium) became more renowned than Constantinople and it remained that way until the name of Byzantium gave way to that of Istanbul. The term Byzantium became widely known in culture, architecture, thought and theology and this under the influence of Byzantinologists. Remember that Byzantium was dependent on Antioch. The term Byzantine, applied to the liturgy appears much later.
Greek: the Common Denominator
Thus the Greek language becomes a common denominator for the eastern rites, which all conserve Greek terms. I shall give some examples of numerous common hymns between the Greek rite (called Byzantine) and the Syrian (Maronite), Coptic, and also between the Armenian and Ethiopian rites. The eight tones of the Resurrection are for the main part the same or very similar in Greek, Coptic and Syriac, as are the prayers and hymns of the little hours. So are the prayer which closes the little hours; the beautiful hymn ‘O Gladdening Light’ in the Greek, Armenian, Coptic and Syrian rites; the hymn of the Bridegroom; the hymns of Christmas and of Easter; the chants to the Theotokos; the anaphora of the liturgy of St. John Chrysostom and other prayers of that liturgy (the Armenian liturgy contains twenty-one prayers from that liturgy).
The Council of Chalcedon (451) and the Antiochian Rites
The eastern rites diversified and were fixed between the sixth or seventh centuries, around the Council of Chalcedon. This Council, where the theme of Christology occupied the place of honour, did not influence the liturgical texts or rites. The texts in which one finds traces of the Christological dispute did not appear until later. The main parts of the liturgical texts were composed before the Council when there was only one bishop and two languages in Antioch as also in Alexandria. We must not forget that Severus of Antioch and Dioscoros of Alexandria and numerous others, who are pillars of the Syrian and Coptic tradition, wrote in Greek, and lived before the (time of the) schism of Chalcedon. Hymns slowly replaced the psalms and were composed between the fourth and eighth centuries. In the same way the principal structures of the liturgical prayers (the hours) were being formed around the council of Chalcedon, but were not influenced by the conciliar disputes, in spite of the fact that these disputes were the reason for the diversification of the rites and the divisions of the churches.
This is to say that the majority of these hymns were written in the one church, where there was still one bishop, before the divisions between patriarchates and bishops into Chalcedonians, Greek Byzantine Melkites and non-Chalcedonians, Syrians and Copts. All these elements (a single bishop, the hymns, the hymnographers) are important factors for demonstrating that the Antiochian rite (in the two languages of Greek and Syriac) was formed and constituted before the Council of Chalcedon or a little after, and in any case before the foundation of the Syriac non-Chalcedonian jurisdiction of the time of Jacob Baradi (+578), denounced as a Monophysite. This is a proof of the unity of the Antiochian rite in both languages and in both traditions. That is to say that the Syriac rite is Antiochian and the Greek rite is also Antiochian; the same rite in two languages. The Melkite rite is also Antiochian and is the origin of the rite now called Byzantine. That is to say that our rite, like that of the other Greeks and the Syrians is the unique rite of a single Church which had two liturgical languages, going back to one origin. It is the Council of Chalcedon which has separated us and not our rite. We all have one sole Antiochian rite in two languages (and one can say the same thing about the Maronites.)
Influence between Antioch and Constantinople
We can affirm with scientific certitude, that the rite called Constantinopolitan was able to develop because of and after the Council of Chalcedon and that this is where the Greek Antiochian rite acquired several elements from Constantinople. But, to tell the truth, these are secondary elements and of lesser importance: the procession, ritual movements, directives of the Typikon; these elements developed much later between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries. This Constantinopolitan influence became marked after the Crusades (which in our Arab and Muslim literature are called the Frankish War) and again, because of the aggrandising influence of the Patriarch of Constantinople, it became the point of reference for its Christian citizens, later the inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire. We must not forget either the Byzantine reconquest of the tenth century or the fact that the Patriarchs of Jerusalem and Antioch were refugees in Constantinople. It must be stated that both then and later it is Antioch which influenced Constantinople, especially in the liturgy.
On the other hand, everywhere, in all Churches and rites, there were different local traditions, so the Syrians conserved seventy-two anaphoras. It is possible that under the influence of Constantinople a good number of these anaphoras disappeared. The Antiochian Typikon and that of Jerusalem were also partly influenced by that of Constantinople. If we read the Typikon of Constantinople and that of St. Saba (and not that of Antioch), we see the relationships between the Antiochians and the Byzantine Greeks, which prove that the original rite is Jerusalem-Antiochian. It is interesting to note that the texts of the Greek rite (Byzantine) of the Greek Orthodox and the Melkite Greek Catholics, written in Greek, were translated entirely into Syriac, after the Byzantine reconquest of Syria in the ninth and tenth centuries. It was Syriac that was in vogue, Greek diminished and Arabic was not yet in liturgical use. Later, at the end of the eleventh century, there began the enterprise of translating the same texts into Arabic. Thus one notes the unique strength of enculturation in the Patriarchate of Antioch and in particular the Greek rite.
The Greek Antiochian Rite was not an Import
There is a widespread theory, hard for us to accept, that affirms that the Melkite Greek Orthodox Catholic Church abandoned its Antiochian rite to adopt the Byzantine or Constantinopolitan rite in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. This theory was adopted by the celebrated Metropolitan Neophyte Edelby (of Aleppo) in his famous Liturgikon, in Arabic, French and German. The same theory has been presented and defended by Fr. Robert Taft S.J. in his work: The Byzantine Rite: historical précis (1992). Our opinion is different: it is that our Greek Orthodox (and Greek Catholic) rite is an Antiochian rite in the Greek language. The Syriac rite of the Maronites is also the same Antiochian rite in the Syriac language. The Antiochian rite in the Greek language emigrated with St. John Chrysostom to Constantinople and much later into Eastern Europe (the Slav tradition). At Constantinople it acquired several new elements, for different reasons, as we have already said. In the sixteenth century the expression ‘Byzantine rite’ began to spread. One must note that the division of the rites into Constantinopolitan, Antiochian and Alexandrian is of rather recent, especially twentieth century use. The traditional usage is to say: Greek rite, Syriac rite, Coptic rite, Slav rite in reference to the liturgical language of the rite and not in reference to the geography or locality. Recently (January 2004) I was visiting His Beatitude Petros VII of Alexandria, who assured me that he never employed the term Byzantine rite, but only the term Greek rite.
Analysis of Fr. Taft’s Theory
In spite of the great esteem I have for Fr. Robert Taft, I must state that his theory is refuted by the same profound analysis which he made in his work earlier cited. Thus he demonstrates clearly that the origin of the rite called Byzantine or Constantinopolitan is the Greek rite. This is what the Slav ambassadors discovered when they came to Constantinople (987) to find out about the true Orthodox faith and saw in the liturgy, ‘heaven on earth.’
Fr. Taft strongly demonstrates historical evidence for all stages of the so-called Byzantine rite being closely bound up with the tradition of Jerusalem and Antioch, also called Sabaite . Effectively the Byzantine rite developed under the influence of the Antiochian tradition, as we see from the synods held at Antioch. (Not one synod was held in Byzantium.) Antioch gave plenty of bishops and patriarchs to Constantinople, the most famous being St John Chrysostom, who brought the liturgy which is attributed to him.
The rite of Constantinople proceeded from Antioch. We find the Greek rite in the famous Barberini manuscript (n 338), which was put together halfway through the eighth century, and which is of Antiochian and Syrian origin. All subsequent editions are based on this manuscript. This evidence presented by Fr. Taft contradicts his own theory. Taft also speaks of the reform done by the monks of Studion (the monastery founded halfway through the fifth century) with their head Theodore the Studite (+826). He states that this reform has its origin in the influence of the tradition of St. Saba’s and that of Antioch. Effectively St. Theodore sent for the monks of St. Saba’s to help realise this reform. Many of the prayers and hymns of this monastery and in the capital were written, with several variants, according to the tradition of St. Saba’s. Patriarch Methodios of Constantinople (843-847) came from southern Italy and was of Syrian or Melkite Greek origin. It was he who developed the prayers of the Evlogitaria in the Euchologion. At the beginning of the second millennium the book of the Typikon appeared and in it one reads prayers according to the tradition of the monastery of St. Saba, which were in use in the Christian East. These books clearly carry the imprints of St. Saba’s, traces of Jerusalem, of Antioch and of Constantinople. I believe the same thing can be said about the Typikon of Mt Athos.
In the 12th. century a profound osmosis was realised between Constantinople and the East and the Greek rite took on a more Byzantine and cathedral-like colour, where the chants play a greater role. Much later Taft says, ‘In the 12th. century the influence of the Sabaite (of the monastery of St Saba) tradition was augmented and introduced in the Studite monasteries of Constantinople; this is perhaps the last determining element in the formation of the Byzantine rite of today’. At the same time he affirms that the monks carried out the offices of the Church of the Resurrection in Jerusalem (destroyed in 1009 by the Caliph Al-Hakim, and rebuilt by him) and borrowed liturgical elements from the Studite monks. We find an interesting description of this osmosis between Jerusalem, Constantinople, the Monastery of St. Saba and the Studite monasteries in an important liturgical document, the Tachtikon of the monk Nikon of the Black Mountain, in the region north of Antioch in Syria (1025-1088). In this document one sees clearly the influence of Jerusalem on Constantinople and the Studite monasteries and on the Byzantine tradition in the south of Italy (where in some regions, people spoke Greek as late as the sixteenth or seventeenth century and where there are still two eparchies of Italo-Greeks, who are Greek Catholics) and on the Slav countries of Eastern Europe.
These documents produced in the Tachtikon refer to the Typikon of the Great Church, that is to say Constantinople, or more precisely the church of Agia Sophia. In the same way these documents refer to Mount Athos, to the Studion, to the Typikon of St. Saba which relates to the tradition of the monastery of St. Saba and the Church of the Resurrection and the monasteries of Palestine. There is no mention of the term ‘Byzantine’ in any of these documents. In spite of this, Fr. Taft applies the name Byzantine to all stages of development of the Greek liturgy and the influence between Antioch and Constantinople, though we do not find any trace of this attribute in any of the documents already cited by Taft. This would confirm my theory that the usage of this attribute is modern and we owe it to western authors, the Byzantinologists or Byzantinophiles!
We wonder and ask these questions of the Byzantinologists: what is the Byzantine rite? Wouldn’t it be more adequate and scientific to speak of a Constantinopolitan rite? What is the Melkite rite abandoned by the Melkites in order to adopt the Byzantine rite? What are the specific traditions of each one of the two rites? What are the hymns proper to them?
On the contrary we find that our theory is the one that gives the true answer. In the beginning there was the rite of Jerusalem (in its original form) which developed specifically in Antioch, the whole of Syria and in Egypt. It was celebrated in the Greek language in the cities and at Constantinople. Much later, using different languages, it spread throughout the Slav countries and those of Eastern Europe and southern Italy. Thanks to the influence of the Imperial city and several other factors, much later secondary Constantinopolitan elements entered into the already well organised and established Greek rite. The expressions, Antiochian rite, Byzantine rite are very late terms. This is because the word rite relates to the language and not to the city, as we have repeated more than once. Following the resumption of communion with Rome in 1724, our Melkite Church continued to call itself the Greek Church practising the Greek rite. Our patriarch, though Arab, is called Greek. Our synods speak of Greek traditions, Greek canons and Greek theology. Our correspondence with Rome and other places uses the term ‘Greek’ up to today. At the entrance to our Patriarchate in Alexandria one reads: Katholikos Ellenikon Patriarchion. The rubrics called of the ‘Great Church’ and systematised by the Patriarch Philotheos of Constantinople in the fourteenth century never mention the attribution ‘Byzantine.’
How can one say that these rubrics were components of the Byzantine rite, which supposedly replaced the Antiochian Melkite rite deemed to have been abandoned by our ancestors for it? Furthermore, the influence of Constantinople grew only when this city was called Istanbul, at the dawn of the Ottoman Empire, thanks to the Caliphs and not the Byzantine Emperor! This was to maintain the identity of the Orthodox Church and the spirit of ‘Byzantium after Byzantium’. There appeared in the sixteenth century printed editions of the Greek rite: they followed the order of the Constantinopolitan tradition of St. Saba’s, known from that time as the Typikon of the Great Church. Once again, it was a Patriarch of Antioch, Macarios III in the seventeenth century, who introduced the usage of this Typikon, originating from Jerusalem, into Russia, making a uniform liturgical practice in the Orthodox world.
Common research on the subject of the Greek Antiochian, Syriac and Maronite rites
The Maronite Church developed as a church independent of the Greek Chalcedonian Church, in the seventh century, under obscure conditions, in the time of monothelitism. It constituted itself in the first half of the eighth century, the time when the Maronite Patriarchate was founded, because of the vacancy of the Melkite see of Antioch (between 700 and 742). This is why we find three Antiochian rites in the same region: Greek, Syriac and Maronite. There is a vast field for research into the historical, ecclesial, liturgical and ecumenical character of Antioch. Such research would help us overcome our differences, not to say our disputes! Such research would be able to revive the spirit of harmony (concord) between the faithful and extinguish the spirit of fanaticism, which is at the origins of difference between the rites. This would have a beneficial influence on pastoral work, especially amongst the young who cannot bear the East to be so divided. It is our mission to demonstrate our common origin, complementarity and the osmosis between the rites, to help collaboration between our eparchies and parishes, in Arab countries and in the countries of emigration. I am convinced that such research would give much help towards deepening Christian unity, even amongst eastern Catholics. Once again the adage remains true, ‘Lex orandi, lex credendi.’
I am sure that the work of academic liturgical research is a very important factor for contributing positively towards the unity of the Patriarchate of Antioch, which has five title holders: Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic (the Greek tradition), Syrian Orthodox and Syrian Catholic and Maronite (the Syrian tradition), not one of whom resides in Antioch.
This work for unity in the Patriarchate of Antioch may seem utopian, but it is very important for the Christian presence in the Middle East and in the countries of emigration and for liturgical research. Once again the liturgy can and must be a basis of unity among Christians. This work is the responsibility of patriarchs, bishops, universities and centres of research in the Middle East and in Europe. It seems illusory, but I think that the Church in the Middle East, where Christians are a minority, needs this effort.
Once again we can see the importance of the Patriarchate of Antioch, its unique role in geographical and historical realities, difficult and tragic, its pluralism, complexity, complementarity and wealth of traditions. This Patriarchate represents the reality of the Christian presence in the Arab world. All initiatives coming from this Patriarchate, whether theological, liturgical, ecclesiastical, ecumenical or social, have an immense local impact and an international echo.
Conclusion
1. The use of the term ‘Byzantine rite’ is inexact. It is a late term. It applies to cultural realities rather than liturgies.
2. The rite is related to the liturgical language which characterises it. That is why we say, Greek, Latin, Syrian, Coptic, Armenian, Slav, Ethiopian, Georgian rite.
3. The name of Constantinopolitan, Antiochian or Byzantine rite is very recent and not exact.
4. The original rite is that of Jerusalem; its first heir is Antioch where the heritage is expressed in Greek and Syriac; Alexandria is another heir, in Greek and Coptic; Constantinople is an heir in Greek; Rome is an heir in Latin: so one encounters real liturgical unity.
5. The diversity of rites is best illustrated by the expression, ‘liturgical literary genres:’ all the Christian rites are the expression of the economy of salvation, one in substance and content, but diverse in form, expression and formulation.
6. Antioch has, in this respect, major importance. The Church of Antioch, presided over by five patriarchs, has a unique role. Its leaders must work for great unity, solidarity and coordination, both inside Arab countries and in the countries of emigration.
Antioch, where the disciples were first called Christians
For Antioch this title has the greatest honour: there, the disciples were first called Christians. It is the see of Peter and Paul, Ignatius of Antioch and John Chrysostom. At Antioch Christians were called Christians, and not Greeks or Syrians, Byzantines or Orthodox, Maronites or Catholics, simply Christians!
Here is the future and role of the rites: they are to be forms, rich liturgical literary Christian genres, to celebrate the mysteries, one in Christ, one in the economy of salvation. Our future is that we should be Christians. That is the future of Antioch, Constantinople, Alexandria and Jerusalem. It is the future of the Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholics, Syrian Orthodox and Syrian Catholics, Maronites, Copts both Orthodox and Catholic, Armenians, Chaldeans, Assyrians and all Christians, who form in the Middle East the Church of the Arabs, and of which the greatest number are today in the countries of emigration. This Church, I dare to call the Church of Islam.
This study, if it does not aim to realise the great goal of unity, through serious, conscientious, and urgent work, is not worth being written or read.
This is a question of life or death, as J.-P. Valognes has written in a huge work: ‘Life or Death for Eastern Christians.’ It is Antioch which must answer the challenge. The Church of Antioch (with its five branches) has to be the church of the future, not only the church of history. We are, with our Antiochian pluralism, the heirs of history and guarantors of the future.
Antioch! Lift up your head! Your sons and daughters are proud of you. Christian Antioch, great city of God, cradle of Christianity, heir of Jerusalem, holy city and capital of our salvation, from you spread throughout the world “the great mystery of godliness: God was manifest in the flesh, justified in the Spirit, seen of angels, preached unto the nations, believed on in the world, received up into glory’ (1 Tim 3:16).
May this name and mystery be glorified in all languages, all cultures and all rites. May Antioch always remain the symbol of Christian unity!
Gregorios III
Patriarch of Antioch and all the East, of Alexandria and Jerusalem
English language editor and translator from the French V. Chamberlain
